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History of Translation Studies 5

2021-01-03T04:14:35Z

Hu Jin: /* Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译 */

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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Translation Thoughts=

==On Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of Tang Poems from the Perspective of the Creative Treason-李玉 Li Yu 202020080615 英美文学==
<center>李玉 Li Yu </center>

===Abstract===
Tang Poems are one of the quintessences of Chinese classical culture. The English translation of Tang poems is of great significance for promoting the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries even around the world. And because Tang poetry has its unique structure and imagery, whether it can be transformed into an English translation that can be accepted by people in English-speaking countries has always been a debate. This even led to the view that Chinese classical poetry cannot be translated. On the other hand, in the process of translation practice, many excellent translations have emerged. From the perspective of creative treason theory, this article analyzes its application in the translation of Tang Poems by Professor Xu Yuanchong, and demonstrates the translatability of Tang poetry and the positive role of creative treason, which opens up a new vision for future English translations of poetry.

===Key Words===
Creative Treason, Tang Poems, Xu Yuanchong.

===题目===
创造性叛逆视角下许渊冲英译唐诗研究

===摘要===
唐诗是中国古典文化的精粹之一，唐诗的英译对于在英语国家乃至全世界范围内推动中国文化的传播具有着十分重要的意义。而又因为唐诗有着其独特的结构和意象，是否可以形神兼备地将其转化成可以为英语国家人士接受的英译本，一直是一个争论。这甚至引发了关于中国古典诗歌不可译的观点。另一方面，在翻译实践的过程中，有许多优秀的译作涌现。本文从创造性叛逆理论视角出发，通过分析其在许渊冲教授的英译唐诗中的应用，论证了唐诗的可译性及创造性叛逆在其中发挥的积极作用，为未来的诗歌英译打开了视野。

===关键词===
创造性叛逆，唐诗，许渊冲

===1.Introduction===
Translation is a process during which the translator will consciously or unconsciously betrayed the source text due to the differences of culture between the target language and source language, especially in literary translation. French sociologist of literature Robert Escarpit proposed the concept of creative treason in his Sociology of Literature by saying that ”Translation is always a kind of creative treason”(Robert Escarpit,1987,137). And he further developed his argument by saying that “If we are willing to accept the view that translation is always a kind of creative treason, then the stimulating problem of translation may be solved. The reason why translation is treason is that it put the works into a completely unexpected reference system(refers to the language); the reason why translation is creative is that it not only endows the works with brand-new appearances so as to enable them to have a new literary communication with a wider range of readers but also give the works second lives while at the same time lengthens their lives”(Robert Escarpit,1987,139).
After that, renowned Chinese professor of comparative literature, Xie Tianzhen, have introduced creative treason into China and have profoundly pointed out the connotation of creative treason in his ''Media-Translatology'' by saying that “if creativity in literary translation indicates a kind of subjective endeavor of the translator to approach to and represent the original works, then the treacherousness in literary translation reflects an objective betrayal of the translated text to the original text that is caused by the translator’s trying to achieve some subjective goal in the process of translation”(Xie Tianzhen,106).
This chapter choose to analyze the English translation of Tang poems not only for that they are an important part of Chinese classical literature, but also for that the English translation of Tang poems are important for the transmission of Chinese culture around the world. The research of it is necessary. And the reason why I choose Xu Yuanchong’s translation of Tang poems is not only that his translation is a good example of how to balance truthfulness and beauty in literary translation, which I will verify in the fourth part of this chapter, but also that he is a translator with mature translation theories.

===2.Faithfulness and creative treason===
====2.1.Faithfulness====
The purpose of translation is communicating information and transmitting culture,so faithfulness is doubtlessly the first and most important principle of all. The proposing of the translation principle of faithfulness dates back to 1 century A.D. Horace,the poet and literary critic in Ancient Rome, puts forward “faithful translator” in his Ars Poetica. And his translation principle can be summarized into two points：(1) Adhere to live translation and reject literal translation. "A faithful translator will not translate literally"; (2) The native language can be enriched by borrowing foreign words through translation.
Contrary to the translation Model of Horace’ s, there is another Model which is also a pattern of the west called Jerome’ s pattern. In Jerome’ s time,the text needed to be translated is the Bible, which is sacred. So Jerome advocate literal translation, and always stick to word.
Though appeared to be different, these two models shared one thing in common, that is faithfulness.
Faithfulness is the most important principle in translation not only in the west, but also in the east. Since the translation of the Buddhist scripture begins, faithfulness has always been an important principle. In the modern times, Yan Fu has proposed the three principle of translation. And among them, faithfulness is the most important one.
On the surface, faithfulness asks the translators to faithfully represent the meaning,connotation,emotion and language structure. However, if we dig into the deeper, we will find that different language modes people’s thinking and recognition pattern differently. So it is hardly possible that a translator can achieve all these at one time. Especially in poetry translation, which is an art of language itself, the writing strategies are deeply dependent on the characterizations of a specific language. However, it is a must to try one’s best to represent the original texts’ beauty. Otherwise, poetry translation will be meaningless.

====2.2.Creative treason====
Literally speaking, creative treason combines creativity and treason together. To be creative, means that in the process of translation, the translator can add some personal understanding and imaging into the translated version. Of course, it should be based on the meaning and connotation of the source text; treason, means that the translator can refuse to adhere to the structure or expression form of the original text, and change them into something that is can be more easily accepted by the target readers.
However, these two things are not contradictory. They are closely related with each other.
And there are two kinds of creative treason. Conscious creative treason and unconscious one. And most creative treason are unconscious. That means objectively, the translators are not mean to betray the source text, but rather negatively have done that.Creative treason as a phenomena or strategy is neither positive or negative. The key point is whether it has been used properly and achieved the intention of the translation tasks.

====2.3.The relationship between faithfulness and creative treason====
The ultimate ends of literary translation is to remold the same aesthetic experience in the target readers’ heart as in the native reader’s. The setting of the translation criteria, faithfulness, served for this ultimate ends. So as creative treason. In poetry translation, faithfulness and creative treason are just like the two sides of one coin.they are complementary to each other.On the one hand, faithfulness is the basis of creative treason. Without faithfulness, creative treason will lose its creativity and be reduced into merely treason. On the other hand, creative treason is the way to achieve a higher level faithfulness. Without creative treason, faithfulness will only be a slogan.

====2.4.Creative treason in poetry translation====
I will apply to a Li Bai’s poem to further present the use of creative treason in poetry translation.

静夜思

床前明月光，

疑是地上霜。

举头望明月，

低头思故乡。

Quite Night Thought

Bedside bright moonlight

Is suspected to be frost on the floor.

Raising head to watch the bright moon,

Lowering head to think of the hometown.

Nostalgia

A splash of white on my bedroom floor. Hoarfrost?

I raise my eyes to the moon, the same moon.

As scenes long past come to mind, my eyes fall again on

the splash of white, and my heart aches for home.

Translated by Weng Xianliang（翁显良）

In the Still of the Night

I descry bright moonlight in front of my bed.

I suspect it to be hoary frost on the floor.

I watch the bright moon, as I tilt back my head.

I yearn, while stooping, for my homeland more.

Translated by Xu Zhongjie（徐忠杰）

The first translation is a word-for-word translation. Though appeared to be faithful in meaning, this kind of translation gives the reader a mechanical feeling and lacks the transmission of the original poem's verve. In this respect, the translation is not faithful to the original poem.Because the original poem doesn't feel mechanical. Not to mention it abandons the rhyme scheme of the original poetry.
The second translation conveys the meaning of the original poem without the feeling of mechanism but is not faithful to its form and beauty. It was translated into prose instead of poetry. However, prose and poetry are totally different. They provide different aesthetic experience to the readers.
The third version not only conveyed the meaning of the original poem but also reproduced the beauty of the original poem. This translation adds "I" to every sentence and adopts alliteration to reproduce the beauty of the original poem. Alliteration is in line with the custom of English poetry and is more acceptable to British and American readers. Moreover, the first line and the third line are rhymed. So as the second line and fourth line.
The third version is a good example of applying to creative treason. It betrayed the original rhyme scheme, but it use another rhetoric device to make up.

====2.5.The Necessity and Inevitability of Creative Treason====
Chinese is an isolated language, which emphasizes parataxis, and its word-to-word combination does not emphasize logical connection. However, English is a kind of inflected language with heavy hypotaxis, and word-to-word combination does not emphasize semantic relevance. So poetry as a art form of language, can never ignore the characterizations of language. There is bound to be a huge gap when the translators try to transform the cultural information interlingually. Exact representation is almost impossible in this respect. So creative treason is necessary and inevitable.

===3.The Translation Thoughts of Xu Yuanchong===
Xu Yuanchong contributed a lot to the transmission of Chinese culture. Due to his great achievement, he has been nominated for the Nobel Prize in literature in 1999. His greatness lies both in the field of translation thoughts and translation practice.Xu Yuanchong's translation thoughts is mainly formed on the basis of a large number of traditional Chinese poetry and literature translation practices. Those thoughts are highly condensed from Xu Yuanchong's years of translation practice. So before analyzing those specific cases, this section will present those important thoughts that is used in his translation practice.

====3.1.The Art of Translation====
=====3.1.1.Three Beauty: Beauty in Sense, Beauty in Form and Beauty in Sound=====
The so called "Three Beauty" is beauty of sense, beauty of sound and beauty of form. Xu got the initial idea of "three beauty" from Lu Xun 's thesis From Language to Article and firstly pointed his idea in 42 Selected Poems of Mao Zedong. Beauty of sense is the beauty of ideological contents which makes readers feel good. Beauty of sound is the beauty of rhyme which sounds good. Beauty of form is the beauty of words and sentences arrangement which looks good. "The translation poems need to convey not only the sense beauty but also the sound beauty and form beauty of the original poems". (Xu Yuanchong, 24-25)The relationship between the three beauty are indispensable. They complement with each other .Xu positively advocate thisprinciple of Three Beauty in poem translation practice. He follows this principle in his translation as well. Xu' s thought can be concluded as: "For one thing, to achieve beauty in sense so as to move readers' heart; to achieve beauty in sound so as to please readers' ears; to
achieve beauty in form so as to appeal to readers' eyes.(Guo Zhuzhang, 421)

=====3.1.2.Three "hua": Equalization, Particularization, Generalization=====
Xu got the idea of three "hua" from Qian Zhongshu's statement. Qian Zhongshu says in his book, Lin Shu' s translation "The highest standard of literary translation is "hua" (transformation). That is to say, a literary text translated from one language into an entirely different language should not exhibit in its grammatical and stylistic forms any trace of awkwardness or strangeness, and at the same time it retains the spirit, the charm and the style of the original work."(Qian Zhongshu,120)
Xu proposed Three "hua" according to Qian Zhongshu's statement.Xu thinks that translation is an art to change one language in to another. The purpose of three"hua" is to make the connection between original work and translators, translators and the translation works, translation works and reader tight. About three "hua", there are three points of "hua". One is Equalization, another one is Particularization, and the last one is Generalization. Xu thinks that translators should try the best to follow the idea of the original work unless the translator has to remove or put some part. Generalization is to avoid disadvantages and particularization is to make full use of the advantages of the original work.And equalization is in the middle.
Equalization is the same as what western translator put forward, functional equivalence translation theory. Xu thinks that the translated version should be equivalent to the original work in both content and form.

=====3.1.3.Three "zhi": Comprehension, Appreciation, Admiration=====
Illumined from Wang Guowei's Poetic Remarks of the World of Men, Xu proposed "Three zhi". Xu put the theory of realm into his translation practice and he thinks that translation should reach three realms, which is summarized as "Three zhi" theory in translation. Poem translation must make the readers have the feeling of Comprehension,Appreciation and Admiration.
What is Comprehension? It means to make the readers to know what the original work talking about. The role that a translator plays is to eliminate the obstacles of different translators. Xu thinks "Admiration" is the crown of laurels.
Translation activity takes the responsibility of the original work, its writers. What's more it also plays an importation role for culture transfer. What needs to be taken into consideration is if the translation from one language to another language can be accepted and loved by readers. Actually, the acceptance of readers influences the spread of the original works. So translators should pay much attention to readers' reading experience.

====3.2.Xu 's 4-R Principles:Recreation, Refinement, Resemblance and Rivalry====
=====3.2.1.The Principle of Recreation=====
There is only a small amount of equal words can be found between Chinese and English. Besides these two languages, each language is unique in vocabulary, pronunciation and form. These features of the languages cause the difficulty of conveying one language fully into another .Peter Newmark said: "a successfully translated poem is always another poem.(Peter Newmark, 165) However, in Xu' s point, what the translation cannot convey the original work fully does not mean that it cannot be conveyed at all. In order to solve this problem, Xu appointed the theory of "creation for loss" Guo Moruo used to say "Literature translation has no difference with creation. Good translation equals to creation.And it sometimes exceeds creation." [Zhang Zhizhong, 89]According to this, Xu proposed theory of Recreation.

This theory is also on the basis of creation for loss. As far as Xu is concerned, translation should make readers cheerful and feel the beauty. It seems that the author is writing the work in another language which we call it target language. The contrary between "truth" and"beauty" can be solved only by Recreation. About the generality of translation and recreation,Xu used to compare these two actions as painting. Creation take the reality as the model.However, translation cannot take the original work as the model only, instead, it needs to take the reality which the original work reflects as the example. Xu Yuanchong pointed that "Recreation is not absolute freedom. What is recreated should be what is hidden in the original work and be revealed by recreation" Xu also said that, Chinese poem has the lingering charms. However, the equivalent words of the target language can only express the original meaning of the Chinese word. Words with same meaning and conveying same lingering charms cannot be easily found in target language (here we refers to English language). So the way of solving this problem is by Recreation.

=====3.2.2.The Principle of Refinement=====
What refinement talks about is the relationship between the original language and the target language. Xu Yuanchong thinks that the relationship between the two languages cannot be absolutely equal. Translation, especially poem translation which has strong sense of literature has to take the advantage of the target language and avoid disadvantages. In the year of 1981, Xu proposed on Translation Correspondence that "Taking the advantage of the target language" and "Loyalty to the orig final works, idiomatic translation form" are the standard of literature translation. It is a great challenge to the mainstream translation standard.

Before the new standard come into force, the scholars pay a great attention on the contrary between loyalty and smoothness, form and content, literal translation and liberal translation. And there is a big amount of argument on these topics. No matter which side they stand, they ignored the deep reason why this contrary arouses. And how this kind of contrary can be solved is ignored also. However, this kind of study will be more meaningful than stand on one side and deny the other side. And that will be more useful in translation practice.

According to Xu's theory, two languages, source language and target language have advantages and disadvantages. Xu denies the equal relationship between the two languages. In order to reach the goal of communication between two languages, and to make readers feel "Comprehension, Appreciation and Admiration"(知之，好之，乐之)，translators have to make up the disadvantages by make full use of the advantages of the target language so that it can achieve the new balance. Using the advantage to make up the disadvantage is like weighting something.

Based on "taking the advantages of the target language", Xu proposed the theory of Refinement.(三势)The development of social life is always for the best. From a micro point of view, translation activity like other social activity, conform to history. So the principle of Refinement shows the direction of the history development. So the so called "take the advantage" is to make the best translation work s and to find the best way to express. At the same time, it should twist the disadvantage and fight for equilibrium. According to Xu' s theory, translation has to analyze the advantage of the source language and the target language. And also see where the equilibrium and the disadvantage are. And then find way to solve the problem of the unbalance. By this way, it can minimize the losses caused by translation. And this may make the translation over the original work.

In 1981，Xu wrote another paper to talk about if translation can be beyond original works.In his paper, he quoted lots of translators and scholars idea about the ad vantage of the target language in translation. Qian Gechuan thinks that French poet Charles Baudelaire is one of the translators who make his translation work Poe famous all over the world. It is generally accepted by readers. In the paper, Xu makes the list of better translation than original works especially Tang Poem translation. At last Xu connected his theory of "Three Beauty" and he summarized the condition of beyond original works. He highly admits that there is possibility of surpassing the original work. In poem translation, it can remain the beauty in sound and form, and it can surpass the original work for the beauty in sense point of view .Even for master pieces, different ages come to new translation versions. The old one may remain but the new version is to surpass.

=====3.2.3.The Principle of Resemblance=====
Fu Lei used to propose in the preface of the book The Old Man Gao. As for the effect,translation is just like painting. What it is pursuing is not the similarity in form instead issimilarity in spirit. The short sentence in the preface highly concluded the experience of translating literature translation. This makes the translation to the high level of art appreciation. This idea transcends Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Admiration".

Why translation has to reach the goal of similarity in spirit? That is because the source language and the target language are quite different. Syntactic Structures, Grammar, Figure of speech, Thoughts of translators', Social Background, Thinking and Ideas are all different from each other. These kinds of differences make it impossible to be absolutely equal, especially for the two absolutely different languages: English and Chinese. So using one language to translate another language is aim to focus on similarity of spirit instead of form.resemblance in sense. Those whose school takes Faithfulness as the highest standard always stop for resemblance in sense. However, the faithfulness sometimes loses the charming character of the original work. A translation work without charm and character is like a bird without wings. It will have no difference from a sample. Professor Xu Yuanchong thinks that Chinese poem focuses on the charm of the poem.So while translation Chinese poems, the taste of the original work, the charm of the poem and the rhyme of the poem have to be translated. So Xu advocates translating literature works especially translating poems should pursue the third level of three resemblance, resemblance in spirit. Chinese poems seek for beautiful words and sentences. At th a same time, it attaches importance to the affection and momentum of the poem. So the translation of Chinese poem should be the same as the original works with bone and flesh, powerful and spiritual.
Xu's "Three Resemblance" can be explained as the following formula.

Resemblance in form: 1+1<2

Resemblance in sense: 1+1=2

Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2

Resemblance in form is the part which can be translation by computer .That is a scientific part. However, the resemblance in spirit is the part which cannot be solved by any technical method. It belongs to Art. Translating is not a science; however, it is an art. All in all resemblance in spirit is the highest level to pursue.

=====3.2.4.The Principle of Rivalry=====
Professor Xu Yuanchong's "Rivalry" theory refers to the competition between source language and target language as well as the culture of both languages. This kind of rivalry composed several aspects.

1) The rivalry be tween two cultures. Language difference causes by different culture. Translation is to use target language to convey the image and emotion described and expressed by source language. And then unify the two cultures. In the process of translation, culture collision, advantages complementary, all these can be described and expressed accurately. All above is the rivalry in culture. The two cultures complete with each other for the purpose of growth and improvement.

2) The rivalry between two languages. This kind of rivalry refers to the competition between the translation works and the original works.Or we can also say the rivalry between writers and translators. Combined with "Making full use of tar get language", two languages make comparison and show their embodiment. Translators choose the best words to express the meaning of the original language carefully.Sometimes, translators are creative enough to create more charming translation then the original works.

3) The rivalry between translators which is the competition between two translation works f or the same original work .Newton used to say，"why do I have such achievement? That is because I am on the shoulder of giants". Just because of the competition,good quality works can appear.

===4.Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of Tang Poems From the Perspective of Creative Treason===
====4.1.Xu Yuanchong’s Translation Appreciation====
=====4.1.1.Crossing River Han by Song Zhiwen（宋之问）=====

渡汉江

岭外音书断，经冬复历春。

近乡情更怯，不敢问来人。

Crossing River Han

I longed for news on the Frontier

From day to day, from year to year.

Now nearing home, timid I grow;

I dare not ask what I would know.

In this translation, Xu translate the first two lines into a coherent sentence so as to make the rhyming possible. And the translation for”岭” is “the Frontier”.Though weakening the image of mountain ridge but at the same time strengthening the meaning of border. And this adjustment in translation is wonderful for that for the readers abroad, the construction of the concept”border” is more important than that of “mountain ridge” in terms of understanding the meaning and sensing the feeling of this poem.

The subject “I” is added to the translation in the first line of the translation, which makes the meaning clearer to the target readers. And this translation strategy is also adhere to the expression habit of English-speaking country. “音书断” is reversely translated into “Longed for news”, which make the translation more perceptible to the readers.

“经冬复历春” is translated into “from day to day,from year to year”. In Chinese,“经冬” and ”历春” are connected by “复”，which presents the lingering of having no letters, however, in English, there is no such word that can perfectly matches. So Xu creatively uses two ”from...to...” structures, and displaces”冬春” with “day” and “year”, which achieves faithfulness both in connotation and to some extent in form.

In the third line, Xu uses “grow” vividly represents the feeling of the original word ”更”.And the repeated meaning “timid” and “dare not” gives a strong impression on the readers’ mind. And the translation of “what I would know” is clever enough to conveyed the implied meaning in the original poem.

=====4.1.2.Drinking Alone Under the Moon by Li Bai(李白)=====

月下独酌

花间一壶酒，独酌无相亲。

举杯邀明月，对影成三人。

月既不解饮，影徒随我身。

暂伴月将影，行乐须及春。

我歌月徘徊，我舞影零乱。

醒时同交欢，醉后各分散。

永结无情游，相期邈云汉。

Drinking Alone Under The Moon

Among the flowers, from a pot of wine

I drink without a companion of mine.

I raise my cup to invite the Moon who blends

Her light with my Shadow and we’re three friends

The Moon does not not know how to drink her share;

In vain my Shadow follows me here and there.

Together with them for the time stay,

And make merry before spring’s spent away.

I sing and the Moon lingers to hear my song;

My Shadow’s mess while I dance along.

Sober, we three remain cheerful and gay;

Drunken, we part and each may go his way.

Our friendship will outshine all earthly love;

Next time we’ll meet beyond the stars above.

In the first line, Xu first uses “among the flowers” and “from a pot of wine” to give the readers a suspense, and then shows the subject “I” in the second line. “a companion of mine” vividly represent the intimacy between “I” and the absent companion, though betrayed the structure of the original poem “相亲”, the translation has achieved the expected effect.

In the fourth line, the use of “blends” represent the harmonious relationship between “the Moon”and “I” which is merely implied by the original diction “邀”.In the sixth line, the diction “in vain” and “here and there” vividly expressed the feeling of “徒” and “随”. “Together with them for the time stay,And make merry before spring’s spent away”, this two lines make the connotation “carpe diem” clearer. And “lingers” and “mess” are not only faithful but also clearly shows the relations of the three. “Sober” and “drunken” are put at the beginning, which makes it easier to rhyme and at the same time strengthens the rhythm. And the structure echoes the original one. “outshines” and “beyond” give the readers endless imagination.

====4.2.Summary====
From these two poems, we can see that creative treason is everywhere in Xu’s translation of Tang poems. From diction, sentence structure, to connotation, Xu all makes some recreations. And we can feel little unfaithfulness from the translation. Xu’s translation of Tang poems is doubtlessly a successful case of creative treason.

===5.Conclusion===
Xu Yuanchong uses plain and natural language and gives new life to Tang poetry.Read his translation, you can temporarily put aside the original fixed mode of reading poetry, found in the translation a novel, strange feeling. Some of the cultural connotation, the original is not expressed, but Xu uses his profound literary understanding and solid language foundation of basic skills, to make up for the defects. He resorts to creative treason, and presents to us the originality and uniqueness of his translation, which is worthwhile to learn and do some researches.

Moreover, we can see from his applying to creative treason the accessible way to translate classical poetry. And his translation is also a proof that poetry can be translated.

===References===
Guo Zhuzhang.郭著章(1997).''翻译名家研究''[A Study of famous translators in Translation].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press]

He Junhua.何俊华(2017).哲罗姆模式和贺拉斯模式对比研究 ——解读翻译的忠实标准[A Comparative Study of The Jerome Model and Horace Model -- The Criteria of Faithfulness for Translation].''英语广场''[The Square of English],10-12.

Peter Newmark(1988):''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Qian Zhongshu钱钟书(1981).''林纤的翻译''[The Translation of Lin Shu].商务印书馆[Commercial Press]

Robert Escarpit.罗伯特·埃斯卡皮(1987).''文学社会学''[Sociology of Literature].安徽文艺出版社[Anhui Literature and Art Publishing Company].

Xie Tianzhen.谢天振(2013).''译介学''[Media-Translatology].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing Company]

Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲(2007).''翻译的艺术''[The Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Company]

Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲(2012).''唐诗三百首''[300 Tang Poems].中华书局[Zhonghua Book Company]

Zhang Zhizhong张智中(2006).''许渊冲与翻译艺术''[Xu Yuanchong and the Art of translation].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press].--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 22:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616 语言学==

<center>林敏 Lin Min </center>
===Abstract===
Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significance of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauties principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.

===Key words===
Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty

===题目===
功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达

===摘要===
功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。

===关键词===
功能对等论，三美原则

===1. Introduction ===
With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose.

''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have tried to translate this prose, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating.

Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as a standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。

Here, this thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauties” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.

=== 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===
Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .

====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====
''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.（Han ,2018 ）

In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurrs to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wanders lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that "this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）."

====2.2 The Two English Versions ====
''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and is selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.（Chen ,2018）

===3. The Basis of Theory ===

====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====
The first scholar in history to propose the equivalence effect is the British translation theorist Alexander Fraser Tytler in 1790. He defined the “good translation” in his book ''A Brief Introduction to Translation Principles''. He introduced that the good translation should completely transfer the advantages of the original work to another language so that the target language readers could clearly understand and feel strongly as the original readers do. This is to say that a good translation should be able to produce the same effect as the original in different linguistic societies. Then, the German translation theorist Kaul called it a comparable effect in his book ''The Art of Translation'' in 1896.

Nida’s translation theory was formed in the 1960s and introduced to China in the 1980s. The functional equivalence principle is one of his central translation ideas. In 1964, Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Toward Science of Translating'', proposing to shift the focus of translation research from the attention of static text information to reader’s attention to the dynamic information of the text. In ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined this theory again. He proposed that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Here, the dynamic equivalence refers to the functional equivalence. The basic point of functional equivalence is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by readers with that of the recipient of the target text. It requires readers of the target text to be able to perceive the original text when understanding the translation.

====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====
Xu Yuanchong ,the highly respected translator and famous professor, is known as “the only person who translates Chinese poems into English and French”. He introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties”principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book ,he said that “the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem.”(Xu, 2003) Xu Yuanchong said that “in translation, the beauty in sense is the most important, beauty in sound comes next and the last is beauty in form, when it is difficult to achieve them all, translator should stress beauty in sense.”And professor Xu also claimed that the “Three Beauties” principles can use in researching and studying the translation of prose.(Xu, 2003)

===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===

Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze whether the two English versions of such prose achieve the degree of function equivalance.

====4.1 ====
Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:

Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)

Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.

However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point.

Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.

However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.

Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.

====4.2 ====
The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)
The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:

Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.

First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.

Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.

To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .

Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.

To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .

====4.3 ====
Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。”So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style? (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)

In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.

Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty.

The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.

Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.

All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form.

Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

“袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the ''OED'', which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.

Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .

===5. Conclusion===
We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.

Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.

===6.Reference===
* Leech G N,(2001) Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.
* Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[''Overseas English'']. 2018.7
* Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian.韩征顺,王健. （2008）月朦胧,荷朦胧,雾蒙蒙,意浓浓——《荷塘月色》四译文“模糊美”研究. [A Study on the “Fuzzy Beauty” of the Four Translations of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''] .西安外国语大学学报.[ Journal of Xi’an International Studies University] 第16卷　第4期.Vol. 16 Issue 4
* Liu Huiqun.刘慧群(2015).《荷塘月色》修辞翻译管窥[ A Glimpse of Rhetorical Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 语文学刊 [''Chinese Journal'']外语教育教学[Foreign Language Education and Teaching ].2015年第10期. 2015, Issue 10
* Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲.(1978)毛泽东诗词四十二首.[Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong]. 洛阳：中国人民解放军外国语学院[Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Foreign Languages] 1978.
* Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang杨宪益，戴乃迭(1990,5). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. 英语学习[''English Learning''], 1990(5).
*Yuan Lei.袁雷.功能对等理论指导下的散文英译及三美分析——《荷塘月色》的两个英译本比较[ On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence]贵州师范大学.[Guizhou Normal University]
* Zhu Ziqing.朱自清(1927).荷塘月色[''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''].全日制普高高一语文第一册第 5 课.[General High School Chinese Book 1 Lesson 5],原载 1927年7月10日《小说月报》第18卷第7期[originally published in ''Novel Monthly''].北京：人民教育出版社[ Beijing: People’s Education Publishing Society]
* Zhu Chunshen.朱纯深(1992). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''.中国翻译.[''Chinese Translation'']. 1992, (1).--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Form and Spirit in Translation -文偲荇 Wen Sixing, 202020080649 亚非语言文学==
<center> 文偲荇 Wen Sixing </center>

===Abstract===
Both the form and the spirit should be pursued in translation, which is a dialectical relationship. However, in translation, it often loses its spirit because of various factors that lead to excessive pursuit of formal resemblance. It is very important to deal with the problem between the formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance in translation. While emphasizing the spiritual resemblance, do not forget the formal resemblance. If possible, try to achieve a balance between the two, and make a choice in the specific context. Only in this way can the translation realize the new unity of the form and content of the source language in the target language.

===Key words===
Formal resemblance; Spiritual resemblance; Form and Content; Dialectical unification

===题目===
论翻译中的形的贴合与神的韵味

===摘要===
翻译时应追求形神兼备，这两者是一种辨证关系，但在翻译时常常会因为各种因素导致过度追求形似而失去神韵。处理好翻译中形似与神似之间的问题至关重要。在强调神似的同时不要忘记形似，在可能的情况下尽量达成两者之间的平衡，而在特定的语境下也可做出取舍，才有利翻译在译入语中实现传达原语形式和内容新的统一。

===关键词===
神似与形似；形式与内容；辨证统一

===1. Introduction===

----
====1.1 Definition====
Formal resemblance means that when translating, the target text should be consistent with the original text in terms of words, sentence structure, expression and figurative means. And spiritual resemblance means that when translating, we should try to keep the spirit and charm of the original work and achieve the artistic effect of the original work.

"Form", in translation activities, is the most important refers to "language". And "deformation" is what we call "language transformation". From the source language to the target language, "deformation", that is, "language transformation", is inevitable. The change of sound and shape, as well as the combination of sound, shape and meaning should also be changed. And "spirit", to use the terminology of contemporary linguistics, refers to the product of "linguistic activities".

From the point of view recognized by the current translation circle, "spirit" refers to "meaning" to a large extent, but the problem lies in the definition of "meaning", and the linguistic field has not formed a unified view. In fact, many debates about "spirit" and "form" are more or less rooted in the understanding of "spirit" and "form".(Xu Jun 2003,01)

====1.2 Spiritual resemblance in Translation====
The spiritual resemblance is first put forward by Fu Lei. He said, "As far as effect is concerned, translation should be like painting. What is sought is not resemblance in form but resemblance in spirit." (Fu Lei, 1950). Zhu Shenghao also put forward the idea of "keeping the spirit of the original". He said, "The aim of the book is to preserve the spirit of the original as far as possible. Must be forced to seek the next, also must be clear and clear words, faithfully convey the meaning of the original; However, the hard translation with word-for-word contrast is not appreciated. "(Zhu Shenghao, 1954). “神”, means the spirit of the original. Good literary works always have rich feelings, profound artistic conception, strong appeal and strong artistic effect.

===2. The relationship between Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance===

====2.1 Correlation====
Yan Fu, said in ''Theory of natural selection'', "Three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expression and elegance". "Faithfulness" means that the meaning does not differ from the original text, that is, the translation should be accurate, not deviate, not omit, and not add or subtract meanings at will. "Expression" means not sticking to the original form, but making the translation smooth and clear; "Elegance" means that the words chosen in the translation should be appropriate and the article itself should be quaint and concise. In translation, it is difficult to be faithful to the ideological content of the original text. However, if you correctly understand the original text without "expressing" it in a smooth translation, it is equivalent to no translation. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on "expressing" at this time. Since then, the expression of translation has become the focus of translation studies.

Formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance is two different means of translating expression, question of "form" and "spirit" in translation also is one of the most discussed and most difficult fundamental issues to be unified. "The relationship between form and spirit, which directly reflects the relationship between signifier and signified, which is closely related to the means and ends of translation. The so-called means is the transformation of form, while the end is the rebirth of spirit." (Xu Jun 2003, 1). Fundamentally speaking, "form" and "spirit" are interdependent. No "form" means no "spirit".

However, the saying that "sprit follows form", which we often emphasize, gives form the primary character as the material basis for spirit's existence. "Form" is concrete, and the relationship between "form" and "spirit" involves every aspect of human life. The discussion about "body" and "soul" is, to a certain extent, a dispute about the relationship between "form" and "spirit". "soul" and "flesh" in religion, "substance" and "spirit" in philosophy, "form" and "content" in literature, etc, all originate from the fundamental problem of "form" and "spirit". "As far as translation is concerned, the question of "form" and "spirit" can be said to be an obvious paradox. The contradiction lies in the fact that "form" and "spirit" are interdependent and inseparable in nature, while the fundamental task of translation is to achieve the rebirth of "spirit" through "form" transformation". (Xu Jun 2003, 2)

====2.2 In translation, numerous factors may cause the Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance out of step====

=====2.2.1 Metaphors and Associations=====
Due to the different ways of expression in the two languages, the metaphors and associations used in SL(source language) are often unacceptable to TL(target language) readers, or TL readers cannot understand them at all. Or from the surface structure, target language is similar to source language said, but in the sense is not exactly the same, even lost a thousand miles. In this case, for example, the expression form of source language is still used in translation and try to be similar in appearance, which is bound to form a semblance, with similar appearance and spirit completely lost.

ex）"A man may break a word with you,sir,and words are but wind."(SL)

“先生，跟你说话的人可能会失言，而言语总会随风而逝。”(TL)

"Break a word with you" and "words are but wind" are all metaphors in English that may be difficult for non-native speakers to understand when translated.

ex）"The rain came down in long knitting needles."(SL)

“雨滴像长长的编织针一样落下。”(TL)

"Long knitting needles", is a special thing that exists in the context of a native speaker, so non-native speakers are likely to have no accurate concept of it, so it's hard to fully grasp the metaphor even with an honest translation.

=====2.2.2 The cultural differences=====
The translator and the author have different cultural backgrounds, so their understanding of the original text is naturally different. This difference in understanding is mainly due to the influence of preconceived notions. This is a pervasive cultural phenomenon.

ex）He is really the man in the moon(SL)

“他是个真正的月老”(TL)*

“他是个真正远离世俗的人”(TL)

In Britain, people traditionally think of the dark shadow of the moon as a person. The moon is far from the earth, the people in the moon of the nature, he must be unknown to the human world. So He is really a man in the moon means "He is really a man out of the world"(他是个真正远离世俗的人). Under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, once people see the image words "moon" and "man" combined together, they will naturally think of "Yuelao(月老)"——The legendary god of marriage, which leads to the deviation in translation. (Niu Chuangyue 2006, 215)

ex）He is always politically correct(SL)

他总是政治正确(TL)*

他说话四平八稳(TL)

Many people take this sentence that "He is always politically correct" as "He is always correct in politics", which is in line with the Chinese mindset, but it's not what it says. Politics in Chinese refer to principles of thought and ideology while in English politics refer to how they approach people. "He is always politically correct" is not "He is always correct in politics", but "He's smooth talking."

=====2.2.3 The context of languages changes=====
The surface layer of words, is a relatively fixed objective reality; And its deep, namely its connotation, but often because of the person's subjective will shift. For language learners and users, it is not difficult to get familiar with the surface, but to grasp the connotation of its continuous shift. To grasp the connotation of words is to analyze the actual meaning of users in a specific context, which is also known as "understanding" in translation. The change of context can be divided into subjective and objective. The so-called subjective change refers to the meaning given to words by users for certain needs; And the objective change is the change in meaning caused by the natural environment.

ex) Made in China(SL)

（由）中国制造(TL1)

（在）中国制造(TL2)

Made in China was, of course, “由中国制造”, before western multinationals entered the country. But when multinational companies enter China, the products they set up in factories in China are still marked "Made in China", but they are not “由中国制造” but “在中国制造”. Made in China, likewise, is different by circumstance, either “由中国制造” or “在中国制造”, of which its connotation is different. Therefore, when understanding the original text, it is not enough to just focus on the literal itself, More attention should be paid to the impact of changes in social history and context.

=====2.2.4 Human factors=====
"Language is a dog". It means that people are subject to language. In fact, this metaphor only illustrates one aspect of the relationship between man and language, namely, man's passive adaptation to language changes. Such passive adaptation certainly exists objectively. But a closer look reveals that the so-called passive adaptation is also due to some human factors rather than the powerful inertia of non-language itself.

On June 20, 2005 British farmers grow potatoes held a noisy protest in London, protesting the Oxford English dictionary, included the couch potato (refers to passive while sitting idly spend your leisure time, especially all day watching TV or DVD), think it said the potatoes too unhealthy, so strongly asked the Oxford English dictionary, delete the entry with couch slouch replace the couch potato.

This event vividly illustrates the human element of semantic change. Potato is originally a plant without any emotional factors, but it has been artificially given some kind of associative meaning. In a sense, of course, this is an expression of the richness of language, but this richness comes at the cost of deducing the actual meaning of specific concepts. If we compare documents from hundreds or thousands of years ago with the languages we speak today, we will find a general phenomenon that today's languages are much more complex and abstract than those of old. The reason is that we are constantly deducing the semantic meaning of specific concepts or words for various rhetorical purposes.

In the concrete application of language, such deduction exists objectively and is also the concrete manifestation of the normal function of language communication. However, in translation, the translator should try to avoid the appearance of such deduction and manifestation, or at least control it within a certain limit, which may lead to the semantic variation of the primitive concept in the translation. (Zhang Rui 2015, 117)

====2.3 Balance of Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance in Translation====
Of course, it is best to retain the original spirit in translation, but is form and spirit necessarily contradictory? The answer is clearly no. This is because sometimes formal resemblance is spiritual resemblance. The ideological content and emotional charm of a literary work must be expressed in a certain form. Sometimes the original text has some metaphors or associative images, vivid and lifelike, with strong appeal, the emotion and artistic conception appear on the paper, and the source language habits are also close to the target language. At this time, keeping the original form of the translation actually plays a role of spirit evocative. By keeping this form, the translation can achieve the unity of form and spirit.

ex) He was a friendly and very hospitable man.(SL)

他是个友善而又十分好客的人。/他为人友善，热情好客。(TL)

ex)Though somewhat pompous, he was an entertaining companion.(SL)

虽然有些浮夸，（仍不免承认）他是个娱人的伴侣。(TL)

ex)He was a man of good understanding and talents.(SL)

他为人通达而富有才情。(TL)

ex)There are people to do everything for money.(SL)

为了钱什么事情都有人做。/有些人为了钱无所不为。(TL)

The above examples show that, at some point, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance can achieve a harmonious unity. Proper formal equivalence not only helps to preserve the language style of the original text, but also enriches the expression form of the target language. Such expression can achieve both the form and the spirit of the target language, on the one hand, it can retain the form of the original language, on the other hand, it cannot lose its spirit.

====2.4 Choice====

=====2.4.1 The pursuit of spiritual resemblance first=====
But in more cases, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance cannot be both.In the translation of literary works, the pursuit of a similar-looking translation lacks vitality. It would be best if the two languages can have both formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance. However, due to great differences in thinking mode, cultural basis and language structure of the two languages, especially the target language and the source language belong to two different language families with great cultural differences, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the formal resemblance and the spiritual resemblance.

In this case, if the blind pursuit of form similarity, the pursuit of language structure, vocabulary, grammar and other aspects of equivalence, will make the translation stiff, obscure, difficult to understand. For example, in English-Chinese translation, translators with low proficiency are often unable to get rid of the linguistic structure and form of the original text, resulting in a large number of European languages appearing in the Chinese translation.

Professor King Shenghua, a famous Hong Kong translator, once criticized this Europeanized language and called it "translated style". "What is 'translated style' ?" she said, “The word 'translationese' in English. In the past, it has been called the "translation cavity." (King Shenghua, 2006). Which means the translation has a strange-sounding, and unbearable tone of European language. However, up to now, the "translation cavity" is no longer enough to describe this phenomenon, because the evolution so far has formed a style, which appears not only in the translation, but also in the daily life of writing, meeting and communication. This phenomenon is not conducive to the development of translation. From the following examples, you can see the awkwardness of pursuing only the form of translation.

ex)There was much traffic at night and many mules on the road with boxes of ammunition on each side of their pack—saddles and gray motor trucks that carried men, and other trucks with loads covered with canvas that moved slower in the traffic.(SL)

晚上交通甚繁，有许多骡子走过，鞍子驮着军火箱子，灰色的摩托货车装着人，此外，还有一些装货的货车，上面用帆布盖着，走起来慢一点。(TL)*

夜间，这里运输繁忙，路上有许多骡子，鞍子的两侧驮着弹药箱，灰色的卡车上坐满了士兵，还有一些辎重车辆，用帆布盖着，在路上慢慢的行驶着。(TL)

Boxes, motor trucks, and trucks were used to identify the “军火箱子”,“摩托货车”, and “装货的货车”, totally be loyal to the source language. But in literary translation, the translation needs to consider the specific context. The writing background of this article is the period of war, so the translator should also put these words in the specific writing background of war, i.e. the “弹药箱”, “卡车”, “辎重车辆” in the next translation. The translation here obviously violates the original meaning and is a kind of betrayal to the original text. However, this kind of betrayal is the result of the translator's proper re-creation after considering the writing background of the original text. That is to say, in the process of translation, the translator lays emphasis on the spiritual resemblance of the original text, and thus abandons the formal resemblance in part.

ex)“原始森林景区是一个最具自身特点的生态观光区。放眼沟畔，‘林涛万顷接天碧，幽谷百丈入地青’ 的峡谷奇观，总会让人长久驻足; 登上矗立于沟畔的望火楼极目远眺，会真切体验登临泰山那种‘会当凌绝顶，一览众山小’的感觉。”(SL)

“The scenic primitive forest, as an eco-tourism place of interest, possesses its distinctive style. No tourists will not take time to enjoy the canyon spectacle: the vast expense of trees choiring in the wind and the deep valley dressed in green stretches long and deep. When climbing up the fire-watching tower and gawking into the distance, tourist scan experience the sense: "I have now ascended the mountain's crest that dwarfs all peaks under my feet", just as standing on top of Mount Tai. ”(TL)

“Artistic creation originates from a different national (aesthetic standard). As for the translation of artistic conception, some uncertain factors, such as language structure, narrative method, aesthetic method and context creation, often make it difficult for the translation to realize the absolutely correct "equivalence". The implication of this is that contextual translation has a lot of arbitrariness (i.e., asymmetrical equivalence) and is often not limited to any theory. This arbitrariness is reflected in the inspiration generation and Aesthetic creation of the translator in the process of translation.

In other words, the translator is affected by the artistic conception of the original text, arouses infinite emotion and artistic conception, and naturally puts this feeling into the translation. The key lies in the expressiveness, that is, the fluency and accuracy of the narration, and the completion of the transformation from one kind of beauty to another. ” (Zhang Ju 2011, 76)

=====2.4.2 Formal resemblance first=====
The choice of formal resemblance is preferred, mostly in the case of neat alignment and elegant form. For example, the translation of Chinese couplets, or poems, such as antithetical couplets, is a very important form of text.In the translation of general text, content is the primary form. However, when translating poetry, both content and form must be paid equal attention to. For poetry, form is often an integral part of the content that cannot be divided.

ex)《芣苢》：“采采芣苢，薄言采之。采采芣苢，薄言有之。采采芣苢，薄言掇之。采采芣苢，薄言捋之。采采芣苢，薄言袺之。采采芣苢，薄言襭之。”(SL)

Gathering plantain, Here we go plucking it; Gathering plantain, Here we go picking it. Gathering plantain, Quick fingers strip it; Gathering plantain, By handfuls pull it. Gathering plantain, Here we fill skirts with it; Gathering plantain, Belt up full skirts. (translated by Yang Xianyi)(TL)

ex)You say that you love rain, but you open your umbrella when it rains...
You say that you love the sun, but you find a shadow spot when the sun shines...
You say that you love the wind, But you close your windows when wind blows...
This is why I am afraid; You say that you love me too...(SL)

你说烟雨微芒，兰亭远望；后来轻揽婆娑，深遮霓裳。
你说春光烂漫，绿袖红香；后来内掩西楼，静立卿旁。
你说软风轻拂，醉卧思量；后来紧掩门窗，漫帐成殇。
你说情丝柔肠，如何相忘；我却眼波微转，兀自成霜。(TL)

It can be seen that in order to maintain the evenness and the artistic conception of the poem, many images and function words that were not in the original text were added in the translation. Thus it can be seen that it is of course ideal to achieve spiritual resemblance in translation, but it is also a choice to achieve formal resemblance. As long as it conveys the connotation of the original text and achieves functional equivalence, it should be regarded as a success.

===3. Discussion on Form and Spirit===
It should be noted that in the history of translation, the thinking about "form" and "spirit" has been going on almost all the time. In the 20th century, there have been many heated discussions about "form" and "spirit" in Chinese literary translation, and the focus of the discussions is mainly on whether translation should seek formal resemblance or spiritual resemblance. On the surface, it does not seem to be a problem whether the translation should seek resemblance in form or in spirit, because seeking resemblance is not and should not be the purpose of translation.

“However, those who advocate formal resemblance believe that only by seeking formal resemblance first can the spiritual resemblance be guaranteed. But the school that advocates spiritual resemblance thinks, shape resemblance is hard to find, can rely on spiritual resemblance only. The former pursues the first appearance and then spirit, and "both form and spirit" is the best realm; The latter takes "spiritual resemblance" as the only pursuit, and clearly puts forward that "what the translation seeks for is not in appearance but in spiritual resemblance". Due to the difference in emphasis between the formal resemblance school and the spiritual resemblance school, there are also differences in translation methods. The former advocates literal translation while the latter advocates free translation.” (Xu Jun 2003, 02)

The discussion of form and spirit in translation can be traced back to Mao Dun's article "Responsibility and Efforts of New Literature Researchers", published in ''Fiction Monthly'' (1921), in which he proposed that "the most important artistic color of a literary work is the spirit of the work. Chen Xiying also published "on Translation" in ''New Moon''(1929), proposing the theory of sculpture and painting. He pointed out that "translation is the same as painting, of course, imitation is the most important. But the imitation art of a original painting uses the same brush color, while the original text of a book and the translated text use very different languages. Due to different tools, the methods vary greatly." (Chen Xiying,1921). Chen also divides translation into three levels, formal resemblance, meaning resemblance and spiritual resemblance. Chen's "Three Levels" theory is similar to Zhu Shenghao's "Three Levels": (spirit, interest and charm, and rigid translation) theory in translation of Shakespeare's plays.

Xu Yuanchong, a famous translator and professor of Peking University, also put forward the theory of "three likings", based on his own experience in poetry translation. In the ''Art of Translation'', he thought that in order to convey the beauty of meaning, sound and form of poetry, the degree of meaning resemblance, sound resemblance and shape resemblance in the translation can be changed. Jiang Feng, a translator, pursues resemblance in form followed by resemblance in spirit. He said in the afterword of translation of ''Selected Shelley poems'' that in translating poems, one should strive to be alike in form and spirit, because spirit lives in form, and those who lose his form are bound to perish his spirit. Bian Zhilin, also advocated that the translated poems should be translated in accordance with the original form.

Therefore, as far as translation is concerned, Mao Dun and Fu Lei advocate the emphasis on spiritual resemblance rather than formal resemblance, Jiang Feng advocates both form and spirit, while Bian Zhilin advocates that form resemblance is spiritual resemblance.

===4. Conclusion===
From the above content, we can know that there are many factors that influence the form and spirit in translation, and the emphasis on the form or spirit resemblance in translation depends on some specific situations, which need to be analyzed on a specific basis. For example, when translating ancient poems and poems, in order to keep the antithesis neat, we emphasize the form more; When translating long sentences with beautiful artistic conception, we usually put more emphasis on the spirit in order to preserve the beauty of artistic conception.

In the process of translation, to achieve the dialectical unity of form and spirit, at least two aspects need to be considered: one is the restriction of form on content; the other is the stylistic meaning of form itself. We should not only consciously convey the content of the original text, but also convey the formal meaning, so as to achieve a new unity of form and content in the target language, to produce a better translation and achieve a harmonious unity between form and spirit.

However, in some cases the formal resemblance is the spiritual resemblance. The two are not completely separated, but there is a part of you and a part of me in each other. Sometimes the formal resemblance is bigger than the spiritual resemblance, and sometimes spiritual resemblance is bigger than the formal resemblance. This is the dialectic of things, if we insist on consistency, it will backfire. Therefore, we should not only get a thorough understanding of the original text, in-depth study, strive for both form and spirit, grasp the key points and master them thoroughly, but also be prepared to abandon the form of the original text, grasp the essence of the original text, use appropriate form, the original text for artistic recreation, so as to strive for the ideal effect of spirit resemblance.

===Reference===
[1] Cui Yonglu. 崔永禄. (2002). 得意不可忘形——试论翻译中形与神的辨证关系. [Pride must not Be Lost in Shape -- On the dialectical relationship between form and God in Translation]. ''天津外国语学院学报''. [Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University] 1-5.

[2] Li Zhengguo. 李振国. (2016). 从奈达的功能对等理论视角探析英汉翻译中的“形神兼备”——以程雨民的《初次与约翰逊见面》译本为例. [An Analysis of "Both form and Spirit" in English-Chinese translation from the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory -- A case study of Cheng Yumin's ''First Meeting with Johnson'']. ''贵州师范学院学报''. [Journal of Guizhou Normal University] 92-94.

[3] Niu Chuangyue. 牛喘月. (2006). 形与神俱,不可分离——从语义与语境的演变看中医翻译中的“常”与“变”. [Form and Spirit are inseparable -- "Chang" and "Chang" in TCM Translation from the Perspective of Semantic and Contextual Evolution]. ''中西医结合学报''.

[4] Pang Xuefeng. 庞学峰. (2013). 翻译中的文质之争与神形之辩. [The quality of the text and the form of the debate in translation]. ''赤峰学院学报(汉文哲学社会科学版)''. [Journal of Chifeng College (Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences edition)] 150-151.

[5] Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). “形”与“神”辨. ["Form" and "Spirit"]. ''上海外国语大学学报''. [Journal of Shanghai International Studies University] 57-66.

[6] Zhang Ju. 张巨. (2011). 汉英意境翻译中的形与神. [Form and Spirit in Chinese-English translation of Artistic Conception]. ''江苏外语教学研究''. [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu province] 74-78.

[7] Zhang Rui. 张蕊. (2015). 从形与神之矛盾看“翻译者即背叛者”. [From the contradiction between form and Spirit, "translator is a traitor"]. ''鸭绿江(下半月版)''. [The Yalu River (second Half)] 122+117.

[8] Zhang Xiaoman. 张小曼. (2006). 诗歌翻译中的形神问题——以杜甫《望岳》一诗的英译为例. [The Problem of Form and Spirit in Poetry Translation -- Taking The English translation of Du Fu's ''Wangyue'' as an example]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''. [Journal of Hefei University of Technology (Social Science edition)] 157-160.

--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Book Analysis: The Way of Transaltion: Theories and Application 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==
your student number and 专业are missing--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
The Way of Translation:Theories and Applications closely circled around the mutual relationship between translation theory and practice to make explanation about translation studies. This article aims to make a summary about the original text, which includes a brief translation history, the present situation about the translation study, the detailed analysis about the “cultural turn” as well as some important redefined concept about translation studies and the deep reflection about the translation studies. The author would like to make some analysis about the book from different perspectives, includes the introduction, major contend, academic contributions, strength and weakness etc.

===Key Words===
translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose
Translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
《翻译之道：翻译理论与实践》一书紧紧围绕翻译理论与实践之间的互动关系展开, 作者对中西翻译历史作出简要回顾，针砭时弊，对翻译理论与实践现状进行了切中的描述，深挖“文化转向”的来龙去脉，重新界定了翻译概念、目的与标准等概念，对理论与实践的现状作出深刻反思。本文将就原书出版背景、逻辑主线、学术立意、读后启发几个方面展开论述。

===关键词===
翻译理论与实践；“文化转向”；译介学；翻译学；文本目的

===Introduction===
About the Background
As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate their experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.
After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.
However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other.
Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.
Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.

About the Author
Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.

The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.

====About the Background====
As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.

After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.

However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other.

Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.

Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====About the Author====
Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.

The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Main body===

====The brief introduction====
From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.
First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.
Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.
In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.
The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.
Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.

From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.

First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.

Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.

In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.

The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.

Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Specific Exposition====
To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.
He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.
In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.
In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.
While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.
This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus.
Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.
In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).
From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).
However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth& Cowie, 2004:183).
Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.
From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.
First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.
The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.
In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.

To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.

He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.

In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.

In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.

While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.

This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus.

Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).

From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).

However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth& Cowie, 2004:183).

Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.

From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.

First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.

The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.

In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===The writing feature===
====Complete system with extensive quotations====
In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.
Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the "annual review" of Chinese translation studies.
For this reason, the author makes a research on the "cultural turn" which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as "equivalent translation exploration", "contemporary translation theory", "translation", "the basic framework of the translation in China" in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature "and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.
The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.
In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.

In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.

Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the "annual review" of Chinese translation studies.

For this reason, the author makes a research on the "cultural turn" which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as "equivalent translation exploration", "contemporary translation theory", "translation", "the basic framework of the translation in China" in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature "and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.

The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.

In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.
--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Logical and philosophical Explanation====
At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.
First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter "cultural turn", known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.
The translator's task is to "make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers". As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of "translation theory location map", can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.

At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.

First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter "cultural turn", known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.

The translator's task is to "make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers". As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of "translation theory location map", can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Powerful Critism with strong evidence====
Throughout the full text, from the status quo of the theory and practice of the second chapter, especially the book in the last few chapters, the author through a large number of reading and rely on the accumulation of translation practice for a long time, have been put forward for the theoretical study and practice of translation problems in reality, the relationship between problem, theory research example, textual research is lax, citing uncertainty, terminology translation and the translation is not unified, there thinking logic and language logic problem, theory and problems such as monotonous and argument, and the question of whether cognitive process is objective, translator translation practice have a "betrayal" of the problem of the wind, vision, objective, to the point, In the last chapter, the author elaborated on the relationship between pure theory and translation, provided a way to combine theory with practice, and improved a complete methodology and action guide for us to better combine theory with practice.

===Conclusion===
From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.
Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities.

In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.
Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose.
With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.
Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.
Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative.
Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.
He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.
Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity.
He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.
Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.
Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.
To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.
The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!

From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.

Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities.

In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.

Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose.

With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.

Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.

Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative.

Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.

He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.

Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity.

He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.

Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.

Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.

To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.

The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reference===
Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.
Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie：翻译研究词典[M]．外语教学与研究出版社，2005
谢天振，王宁翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展 [M]．复旦大学出版社，2017
曹明伦，翻译之道：理论与实践 [M]．保定：河北大学出版社，2007
甘雪梅．2010．“学、“术共生，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书[J]．湖北函授大学学报，(5)：110-111
黄中习．2008．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评[J]．北经济学院学报，(10)：150一l51
朱蕤．2010．对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以《翻译之道》为伽 R1．福建省外国语文学会2010年年会．厦门

Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.(缺少年份)

Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie.翻译研究词典．外语教学与研究出版社，2005（格式错误）

Xie Tianzhen, Wang Ning. 谢天振，王宁. (2017). ''翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展''. [Translation Studies: The Search and Development as an Independent Subject] 上海：复旦大学出版社[Shanghai: Fudan University Press].

Cao Minglun. 曹明伦. (2017). ''翻译之道：理论与实践''. [The Tao of Translation: Theory and Practice] 保定：河北大学出版社[Baoding: Hebei University Press].

Gan Xuemei. 甘雪梅. (2010)．“学、“术共生，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书. [Symbiosis of "Science and "Technology", "Dao" and "Apparatus" Mutually Reconcile: A Comment on Professor Cao Minglun's Book "The Tao of Translation: Theory and Practice"]. ''湖北函授大学学报''[Journal of Hubei Correspondence University] 110-111.

Huang Zhongxi. 黄中习．(2008)．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评. [Efforts to build a harmonious relationship between translation theory and practice: An introduction to the theory and practice of translation]. ''北经济学院学报''[Journal of North University of Economics]150一l51.

Zhu Yu. 朱蕤. (2010). 对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以《翻译之道》为例. [Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies: Taking "The Way of Translation" as an example]. 厦门：福建省外国语文学会2010年年会. [Xiamen: 2010 Annual Meeting of Fujian Foreign Language and Literature Association].--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=Translation Strategies=

==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao 202020080675 英美文学==

===Abstract===
This paper studies the English version of ''seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the perspective of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory of translation. It can be found that this English version focuses on the target audience and uses appropriate translation strategies, methods and techniques in the light of the target audience's reading habits and cultural background, such as free translation, literal translation, shift, addition, omission, division and combination. As a result, the English translation’s vocabulary, discourse structure or expression can be easier to be accepted by the target audience, which is conducive to the dissemination of China's information and maximizes the communication effect of international news of China.

Keywords: Skopos Theory; translation strategies; translation methods；audience

===摘要===
根据汉斯・佛米尔翻译目的论的观点对《为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年》英译本进行研究，发现该译本以目标受众为着眼点，从目标受众的阅读习惯和文化背景出发，运用恰当的翻译策略、方法和技巧，比如意译、直译、转译、增译、减译等，因而译本的英语词汇、语篇结构或表达方式更易为目标受众接受，这有利于中国信息的传播，最大程度增强我国国际新闻的对外传播效力。

关键词: 目的论；翻译方法；翻译技巧; 受众

===Introduction===
''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' is a white paper published by the Information Office of the State Council of China in September 2019. In addition to the preface and conclusion, the full text consists of eight parts, and quotes a large amount of data to show in detail the progress of human rights in China since 1949; the people-centeredness of human rights; the ways to realize the protection of human rights; the remarkable achievements in the implementation of human rights; the continuous strengthening of human rights protection and China's contribution to promoting the cause of human rights in the world.

Nowadays, international political, economic and cultural exchanges are unprecedented frequent and in-depth. International information and culture should be welcomed by our country. At the same time, Chinese culture and values need to be spread. We should have our own voice in international exchange activities, to tell Chinese stories so that the world can better understand China(He Jiaying 2020,4). Therefore, the translation of Chinese international news plays an important role in cross-cultural communication and communication between China and foreign countries. Therefore，it is also worthwhile to study the translation of these news.

In ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'', its accurate and rigorous translation has played a positive role in shaping national image and building international discourse. There are a large number of words related to political system with Chinese characteristics in this text. These words often represent some important policies and current situation of human rights of our country. Accurate translation of these words is the key to correctly convey these messages.

Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of translation and holds that translation activities should adopt corresponding translation methods and techniques. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation work is mainly for the target audience. Its purpose is to achieve the re-dissemination of the original content and finally gain a certain communicative effect.

As a political document, ''seeking happiness for people: 70 years of progress on human rights in China'' can be regarded as government behavior, that is, the organizer and commissioner of translation is the government, and the translator is the institution and interpreter entrusted by the Chinese government. If the relationship between entrustment and entrustment is made clear, the purpose of translation is obvious. The Chinese government disseminates such information, like the concept of human rights, the way to realize the cause of human rights, the achievements of developing human rights, and China's contributions over the years, to English speaking countries on the basis of respecting their linguistic habits and cultural backgrounds. In this way，translators should observe translation principles and choose appropriate translation strategies under the guidance of this purpose.

The principle of coherence requires the translation to be logically clear and semantically cohesive, which can keep the Chinese style of political documents while making it accessible to readers. The principle of faithfulness requires the translator to accurately understand and grasp the connotation of article. (Luo Mazhang, 1984,124-126). On this basis, translators use translation techniques and methods to translate and interpret the original text, so that what readers understand from the English version is consistent with the information expressed in the original text. Moreover, according to the different characteristics of these words related to the political system with Chinese characteristics, we should adopt different translation strategies, methods and skills.

===A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory===
Skopos theory originated in Germany in the 1970s put forward by Hans Vermeer. It belongs to functional translation theory, in which it is the most important theory. It has a wide influence on text translation and is widely employed in translation. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any behavior has a purpose. The primary factor determining the process of translation is the purpose of translation (VERMEER HANS. J 1989:90). That is to say, translators shall exercise corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified in the light of the translation purpose. The translation strategy depends on the needs and expectations of the target language readers or audiences. Therefore, we can say that translation is a text that meets the needs of readers on the basis of translation purpose.

People pursuing skopos theory believe that skopos rules, coherence rule and fidelity rule should be followed in translation. The Skopos rule refers to that the translation behavior depends on the translation purpose, in other words the result determines the method; the coherence rule means that the translation must conform to the standard of intralingual coherence, namely, the translation must be comprehensible by the receiver and be meaningful in the target language communication; the faithfulness method refers to the existence of interlingual coherence between the original text and the target text, that is, the translation should be as faithful as possible to the original text (NORD C 2002,28).

Among the three laws, the rule of faithfulness is subordinate to the law of coherence, and at the same time, the two laws ultimately depend on the law of purpose. The translator should first ensure that the translation can achieve the intended purpose, then ensure the coherence of the translation, and finally ensure the consistency between the translation and the original (N. Zhao 2014, 98-101). We know that different cultures have different cultural customs and their own unique values, so translation is not an act of transforming one language into another. The translator should translate based on some specific requirements, combined with the specific demands of the translation, the target readers' reading habits and cultural background.

===The Employment of the Translation Strategies And Translation Methods in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===

====Foreignization Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====
In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him." (2006,229) It is shown that in translation, the language, literature and cultural characteristics of the original text should be retained to the full, and the foreign tone kept. The advantages of foreignization strategy are as follows: the structure of source language, poetic features can be introduced into the target language to enrich the expression of the target language; the target language readers can fully appreciate the exotic beauty, and thus promote the cultural exchange between different nationalities (Venuti, 1995). The defect of foreignization strategy is mainly reflected in the readability of the translation, that is, the translation may be stiff and not natural enough, which will affect the reception and dissemination of the target language among the target recipients.

=====Literal Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Literal translation is characterized by two main features: with regard to lexical meaning and rhetoric without the use of paraphrase, which distinguishes it from free translation; in the processing of lexical and syntactic structure, appropriate changes or transformations are allowed, for example, word order transformation is used to make the translation conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language, which distinguishes literal translation from word-for-word translation (Munday, J 2008,9). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

两个一百年 Two Centenary Goals; 当家作主 became masters of their country; 伟大复兴的中国梦 Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation;人类命运共同体 a global community of shared future;中共十八大 the 18th CPC National Congress;五位一体Five-point Strategy;习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想 Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era;民法通则和侵权责任法the General Principles of the Civil Law and Tort Liability Law

Analysis: with the continuous advancement of China's political and economic status in recent years, China has mastered a certain voice in the international community, and initially established a unique political discourse system. Therefore, some characteristic political words can be translated literally without causing difficulties for the foreign audience to understand.

=====Zero Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Zero translation does not demand any operation in translating. Some elements of the source language are directly introduced into the target language (Munday, J 2008,8). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1:中国以占全球6.6%的淡水资源和9%的耕地，养活了世界近20%的人口。
China feeds approximately 20 percent of the world's population using 6.6 percent of the fresh water resources and 9 percent of the arable land of the world.

Example 2:1949年末，全国城乡就业人员18082万人，其中城镇就业人员仅有1533万人，城镇失业率高达23.6%。
At the end of 1949 there were 180.82 million people across the country in employment, of whom only 15.33 million worked in urban areas.

Analysis: The white paper uses a large number of figures to specifically describe the changes and achievements of China since the implementation of human rights. For these large numbers, it is not necessary to translate them, but to keep the Arabic numerals directly. In this way, the translation is faithful to the original text. Besides, it is in line with the purpose of publicity translation.

=====Word-for-word translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Word-for-word translation refers to the translation of the original sentence by word without considering the differences in morphology, syntax and semantics between the two languages (Munday, J 2008,7). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

半殖民地半封建社会 semi-colonial and semi-feudal society；改革开放 the reform and opening up；一带一路”倡议 the Belt and Road Initiative

Analysis: The above political terms widely emerge in various documents and news in China, and also appear in a high proportion in all sorts of reports of foreign media. Therefore, even if word-for-word translation of above words is taken by translators, readers can also understand translations easily without additional translation or explanation, which reflects the principle of faithfulness to the original text in skopos theory.

====Domestication Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====
In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(2006:229). Translators should try to replace the source language, literature and culture with those being popular among the target language readers, and abide by the target language norms. The advantages of domestication are that the translation is smooth, easy to be understood and accepted by the target language recipients, or to meet the specific needs of the target language readers. The defects of domestication strategy are as follows: the loss of language, literature and cultural elements in the original text, which results in the target language recipients being deprived of the opportunity to appreciate foreign languages, literature and culture. This is not conducive to the enrichment and development of the language, literature and culture of the target country and the cultural exchange among different nationalities (Venuti,1995).

=====Free Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
The main feature of free translation is the use of paraphrase in the processing of lexical meaning and rhetoric, so as to reproduce the meaning of the original text smoothly and truly. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：四个全面”战略布局 Four-pronged Strategy

Analysis: Four pronged refers to the rake with four teeth. Through cultural borrowing, it vividly interprets a comprehensive strategy of four pronged, to illustrate that the strategic layout includes four aspects, and the contents of the four aspects should go hand in hand. This translation reproduces the lexical and syntactic structure of the source language as well as the form of the original language.

Example 2：新时代中国特色社会主义将人民对美好生活的向往作为奋斗目标。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, the people's aspiration to live a better life is the focus of all the country's work.

Analysis: The literal translation of “奋斗目标” is usually goal or purpose, but here it is translated as“the focus of all the country's work”，which emphasizes its importance in this context.

Example 3：世界各国在人权保障上没有最好，只有更好。
Every country has room for improvement in protecting human rights.

Example 4：个人权利只有与集体权利统一起来，才能实现人权的最大化。
Individual rights can only be maximized in the context of collective rights.

Example 5：新中国成立之初，社会保障尚属空白。
There was no social security system in China when the PRC was founded.

Example 6：绿水青山就是金山银山。
Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets.

Example 7：截至2018年，西藏自治区已有117名学经僧人获得了格西“拉让巴”学位，68名僧人获得了中国藏语系高级佛学院“拓然巴”高级学衔。
By 2018 a total of 117 monks from Tibet had received senior academic titles in Lhasa and 68 from the High-level Tibetan Buddhism College of China.

Analysis: In example 3, "better" is translated into "there is still room", which is another expression to convey the same idea. Although the expression is different, but the meaning is the same, which means that there are always more efforts needed to be put into protecting human rights. In example 4, it uses “in the context” to vividly deliver the condition that individual rights are combined with collective rights. In example 5, “空白”actually refers that social security has yet to be popularized to the public. So it can't be literally translated into “blank”. The free translation here is a good expression of the original meaning. “绿水” in example 6 is not to emphasize that the water is green, but to indicate all the clear and clean waters and the currents, so it is lucid waters. In example 7,“拉让巴”and “拓然巴” are all translated into “senior academic titles”, which make the readers directly clear about its real connotation.

===The Employment on the Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory===
In the translation methods, apart from zero translation, transliteration and word-for-word translation, the other five translation methods will involve the usage of various translation techniques. There are many kinds of skills, but they can be generally classified into five kinds: omission, addition, division, combination and shift (M. F. Zhang 2009, 53-60). The following is a rough analysis of the translation techniques employed in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''.

====Omission Under Translation Skills====
Omission refers to the deletion of some complicated and redundant words, sentences or even paragraphs in the original text according to the needs of morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or due to some specific cultural norms of the target language (Reiss K 1971). By doing so, the original ideas can be expressed more concisely and smoothly, and then the translation can better achieve the specific translation purposes. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 中国人权事业的命脉所在、根本所在。
the foundations for the cause of human rights in China.

Example 2: 国家提出经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设、生态文明建设“五位一体”总体布局，使每个人的经济、政治、文化、社会、环境权利能够得到充分保障。
It puts forward the Five-point Strategy (promoting economic, political, cultural, social, and environmental progress in a coordinated way), so every citizen's rights can be fully protected in each of these spheres.

Example 3：中国的粮食总产量由1949年的11318万吨提高到2018年的65789万吨，耕地灌溉面积由1949年的1594万公顷扩大到2018年的6810万公顷。
Total grain output soared from 113.18 million tons in 1949 to 657.89 million tons in 2018, and the area of irrigated farmland from 15.94 million ha in 1949 to 68.1 million ha in 2018.

Example 4：中国从根本上消除了饥饿，持续改善了人民的营养水平。
It has succeeded in improving nutrition and eradicating hunger.

Example 5：截至2018年，全国已有84%的行政村实现生活垃圾收运处置体系基本覆盖。
By 2018, 84 percent of all administrative villages were provided with garbage treatment.

Analysis: in example 1, “命脉”and “根本” are all used to express the necessity of the cause of human rights, thus one of them can be omitted. In example 2, “economic, political, cultural, social and environmental spheres” has been mentioned in the preceding sentence, so the latter one can replace them with “each of these spheres”. In example 3 the verbs in the first and second sentences are both “soar”，so the latter one can directly be left out by the rules of English grammar. Example 4 directly through the phrase “has succeeded in” to show the results. "从根本上" and “水平” of “营养水平” is to emphasize with no much necessity in the translation, whose omission does not affect the original meaning. Example 5 only use the passive voice of "provide" that can succinctly and lucidly express the original meaning.

Example 6：因为有了新中国70年，中国人民的生活才更加幸福美满；因为有了新中国70年，我们的世界才更加繁荣发展；因为有了新中国70年，人类社会才更加丰富多彩。
As a result of the developments that have taken place in the PRC over the 70 years, the people of China are living a happier life, the world is more prosperous, and human society is more diverse and colorful.

Analysis: "因为有了新中国70年" has been repeated three times to strengthen the tone. While in the translation, it is only referred once to avoid wordiness. There are several other same translations using this skill in the following text. A large number of parallelisms often appear in Chinese political texts. When studying the translation of these sentences, we can find one thing in common, that is, repeated words can be translated only once, which reflects the concise characteristics of English language.

====Addition Under Translation Skills====
Additional translation refers to the reasonable and appropriate addition of certain words, sentences or paragraphs to the translation according to the needs of the morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or subject to certain norms of the target language, so as to better express the content of the original text and better realize the specific translation purpose (Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：人权是历史的、发展的。
Human rights are a historical and developmental concept.

Example 2：人类社会发展经验 the experience gained in human social development

Example 3：中国共产党带领人民深刻总结我国社会主义建设正反两方面经验。
Under the leadership of the CPC, the people review experiences and lessons drawn from socialist construction.

Analysis: Example 1 adds “concept”；Example 2 adds “gain”, a verb, to show the source of experience；Example 3 adds “lessons”, because experiences and lessons can be regarded as a pair of phrases that always appear together.

Example 4：改善城市和农村人居环境，开展生态修复、城市修补……生活垃圾收运处置体系建设。
Efforts have been made in several areas: improving the living environment in cities……transporting and disposing of household garbage in rural areas.

Example 5：国家建立了最低生活保障制度、最低工资保障制度……中小学义务教育制度等。
Chinese government has put into place a number of systems and mechanisms, including those dealing with subsistence allowances, the minimum wage……and compulsory education (primary and middle schools).

Analysis: Summary phrases have been added in several parts of the white paper to make the text clearer. Example 4 adds “efforts” to be the subject in order to clearly state what has been done by China；example 5 uses “systems and mechanisms” to outline its specific content one by one.

Example 6：新时代中国特色社会主义着眼于实现“两个一百年”奋斗目标和中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, China focuses on achieving the Two Centenary Goals and realizing the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

Example 7：依法保障宗教信仰自由。
China protects freedom of religious belief in accordance with the law.

Example 8：建立起世界上覆盖人口最多的社会保障制度。
China has established a social security system that covers the largest population in the world.

Example 9：尊重和保障人权 We must respect and guarantee human rights.

Analysis: when translating a Chinese sentence without subject into English, the subject mentioned above should be added in translation. Because in Chinese discourse, when the subject appears, it can be omitted in later sentences. As a hypotaxis language, English is stricter with its language structure. As an important part of a sentence, the subject cannot be omitted. Therefore, in examples 6-9, the subjects of “China” and “we” are added to the sentence to make the sentence complete.

====Division Under Translation Skills====
Division refers to dividing a sentence into two or more sentences, which can effectively solve the translation difficulties of long complex sentences and satisfy the expression habits of the target language and the reading habits of the audience (Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 中国共产党的领导，是中国人民能够享有人权并不断享有更加充分人权的根本保证，是全体中国人民的利益所在、幸福所在。
The Party's leadership is the fundamental guarantee for the people of China to have access to human rights, and to fully enjoy more human rights. This leadership is therefore in the interests of all people of China, critical for their pursuit of a happy life.

Example 2: 中国特色社会主义将“人权得到切实尊重和保障”作为全面建成小康社会的重要目标，从战略层面确立了人权事业的重要地位。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, full respect for and protection of human rights is an important goal of China's endeavors to build a moderately prosperous society in all respects. This establishes the importance of human rights from a strategic perspective.

Example 3: 多年来，中国始终把解决人民的生存权、实现人民的发展权作为第一要务，不断解放和发展生产力，致力于消除贫困，提高发展水平，为保障人民各项权利的实现创造了基础条件。
Prioritizing people's rights to subsistence and development, China has committed to liberating and developing productive forces, eliminating poverty, and enhancing its level of development. All this has laid the foundation for fulfilling the various rights of the people.

Example 4: 坚持人民在人权事业中的主体地位，把人民利益摆在至高无上的位置，让人民过上好日子，使发展成果更多更公平地惠及全体人民，让每个人更好地发展自我、幸福生活，让每个人都能够免于恐惧、不受威胁，是实现人人享有更加充分人权的真谛所在。
For everyone to fully enjoy human rights, we must uphold the people-centered approach……and ensure a good life for the people. We must ensure that the fruits of development offer greater benefits to all the people in a fair way……and prevent them from fear and threat.

Example 5: 国际社会应秉持和平、发展、公平、正义、民主、自由的人类共同价值，维护人的尊严和权利，推动形成更加公正合理包容的全球人权治理。
The international community should uphold the shared values of humanity – peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy and freedom. It must safeguard human dignity and rights, and strive for fairer, more reasonable and inclusive global human rights governance.

Example 6: 多年来，中国政府通过改革农村土地制度，稳定和完善农村土地承包关系，大力推进农田水利设施建设，使农业综合生产能力不断提升，主要农产品产量稳定增长。
Over the years the Chinese government has carried out rural land reforms to stabilize and improve land contracting system in rural areas. With improved irrigation infrastructure, China's agriculture has seen a continuing rise in productivity and steady increase in the output of main agricultural products.

Analysis: In example 1-6, the syntax is too long and there are too many clauses. Therefore, in order to avoid the syntax being too complicated, it is necessary to split it. At the same time, there are many non-subject sentences in Chinese while English sentences usually have subjects. Therefore, when translating Chinese sentences without subject into English, translators need to complete the subject of most sentences according to the context. For example, add pronouns “it”, “this”, or start with preposition "with". In this case, the translated sentences will make the readers more relaxed and comfortable in reading.

====Combination Under Translation Skills====
Combination refers to combining two or more sentences in the original text into one sentence. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 1982年，第五届全国人大五次会议通过了现行宪法。宪法明确规定了中国社会主义民主的主要内容和基本形态。
In 1982, the Fifth Session of the Fifth NPC adopted the current Constitution of the PRC, which clearly defines the substance and basic form of socialist democracy.

Example 2: 中国努力通过发展增进人民福祉，实现更加充分的人权保障。China strives to enhance people's wellbeing through development in order to better protect their human rights.

Analysis: Example 1 combines the two sentences with “which”, making the text more compact. In example 2, the combination is realized by “in order to”, which reflects the logical connection between sentences, and the purpose is clearer.

====Shift Under Translation Skills====
=====Shift From Active Voice to Passive Voice=====
There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：在新中国成立前夕，通过了具有临时宪法作用的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》。
The Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, which was adopted on the eve of the founding of the PRC and served as the provisional Constitution of China.

Example 2：第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议通过的《中华人民共和国宪法》。
The 1954 Constitution of the PRC, which was adopted at the First Session of the First National People's Congress (NPC).

Example 3：应当尊重人权发展道路的多样性
Diversity in developing human rights should be respected.

Example 4：尊重和保障人权
Human rights are respected and guaranteed.

Example 5：在当代中国的人权实践中，既重视集体人权的发展，又重视个人人权的保障。
In China, equal attention has been paid to developing collective rights and ensuring individual rights.

Analysis: Chinese uses more active voice while English more passive voice. Therefore, in the translation of the original sentences, the subject is put in front and the passive voice is used. In addition, Chinese often express the logical relations between words and sentences by context and word order while English needs clear connectives to express them. Therefore, it is often necessary to add connective words to express logical relations in translation from Chinese to English.

=====Class Shift=====
There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 从1950年起，对国营厂矿交通企业的生产和管理制度进行民主改革，建立工厂管理委员会和职工代表大会。
The democratic reform of the production and management of state-owned factories, mines, and transportation operators that started in 1950 set up factory management committees and workers' congresses in these entities.
Here the verb“民主改革”is shifted to a noun, and leads this sentence, which stresses the role of it.

Example 2人民基本居住条件显著改善。Improved housing conditions.

Example 3饮水安全获得切实保障。Safe drinking water.

Example 4国民健康水平持续提高。Better health for the people.

Example 5 经济凋敝、民不聊生 a shattered economy, a destitute populace

Analysis: In example 2-4, all the verbs are shifted to adjectives in above sentences, which become neater and terser. In example 5,“民不聊生” means ordinary people is too hard and poor to survive themselves. If just literally translate it like above, the sentence will not so succinct or regular as well as not conform to the sentence structure of four characters in parallelism.

===Conclusion===
This text introduces ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''. Because the white paper is a typical central document published by government, propagating the concept of human rights, practical measures and gains, and takes the comprehensive and accurate introduction as the purpose. What’s more, it is closely related to national interests and national image.

Based on its political characteristics, this paper studies its translation strategies, methods and techniques from the perspective of Skopos theory, and finds that the difference between the Chinese version and the English version is mainly due to the different readers. The English version is aimed at English audiences, and linguistic form and culture in England are different from China’s. For example, English uses more passive voice, while Chinese uses active voice; when translating Chinese without subject into English, except those passive voice translations, the correct subject should be added into the translation; English focuses more on logic and connection while Chinese on the meaning and content of text.

The differences may affect readers' understanding of the translation. Therefore, in the process of translation, translators should use appropriate translation techniques and methods according to their differences. Moreover, for such a political report, there are many official words, long sentences and heavy emphases on tone. Thus, the techniques of literal translation, division, addition and subtraction are frequently used.

From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation takes into account not only the function and purpose of the original text, but also the receptivity of the audience and the effect of the translation. Through the study of this white paper, we can see that translators need to stand on the perspective of the audience in the white paper translation, should shift from Chinese language patterns to western with facility, use appropriate translation methods, strategies and techniques, and be faithful to the original content in order to translate political intent clearly and accurately. In this way, misinterpretation, leaking and unclear translation can be avoided, so as to let foreign audiences can quickly and efficiently receive the information that the original text intends to pass on. This study can provide theoretical basis and good ideas for the future translators to find the best translation methods and strategies.

===References===
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[8]Reiss K. (1971). Text Types, ''Translation Types and Translation Assessment//Chesterman A. Readings in Translation Theory''. Finland: Oy Finn Lectura Ab.

[9]Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

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[11]Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China.(2019).''The Journal of Human Rights''.

[12]VERMEER HANS. J. (1989). ''Skopos and Commission in Translational Action.'' ANDREW CHESTERMA. Readings in Translation. Helsinki: Oy Finn Leetura Ab.

[13]He Jiaying 何嘉莹, et al.(2020). "翻译目的论视角下英语新闻的编译策略——基于江苏某科技组织微信公众号平台和南方某高校外国语学院英文网站建设." [Translation Strategy Is Based on the Skopos Theory: The Construction of English News Website Based on the Official Account of WeChat, A Science And Technology Organization in Jiangsu, and the English Website of A Foreign Language College in Southern China.] 科技传播 Science And Technology Communication.

[14]Luo Mazhang 罗新璋.(1984). 翻译论集[Translation Volume]. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: Commercial Press.

[15]Ma Huijuan, Miao Ju 马会娟，苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论宣读[Reading of Contemporary Western Translation Theories].北京：外语研究与教学出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Research And Teaching Press.

[16]Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of " Translation Strategies ", " Translation Methods " And " Translation Techniques "] 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal.

[17]Information Office of the State Council of the people's Republic of China 中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. (2019). "为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年" [Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China]. 人民日报 People’s Daily.

==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590 MTI==

<center>胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590</center>

===Abstract===

This paper is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects. In addtion, the current challenges should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.

===Key Words===

Translator’s subjectivity; Invisibility; Visibility.

===题目===

译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”

===摘要===

本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。

===关键词===

译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。

===Introduction===

The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, and both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their personal views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)

For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but the role of translators in translation activities has always been neglected. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that oriented toward target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

===Translator's Subjectivity===

Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention. On the one hand, the traditional translation view, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. "And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity" (Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.

As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until the 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment. "And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed"(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). "Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively" (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.

====1. Definition of Translator's Subjectivity====

According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”. (Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)

====2. Related Theories on Translator's Subjectivity====

In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since the 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.

The studies on translator’s subjectivity of some typical schools will be introduced as follows.

=====2.1 Polysystem Theory=====

This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that "elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems" (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. "And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school" (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).

=====2.2 Manipulation School=====

The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. "From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose" (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that "translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.

====3. Factors Influencing the Translator's Subjectivity====

The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

=====3.1 The historical background of translator=====

The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility. Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese.

Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

=====3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence=====

The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expressions. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.

=====3.3 Understanding of the original=====

In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes," A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets ". There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text.

Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator in China, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)

In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. Under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this context, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)

===The Influence of Translator's Invisibility and Visibility on Translator's Subjectivity===

In literary translation, the word "invisibility" refers to "the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion"; while "apparent" is put forward according to the opposite of "invisibility", which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, the fact is that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding.Translator should fully make use of it. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)

Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators. Specifically, they can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's "appearance".(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)

1. Translator's invisibility

The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.

According to the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve "transparency" and "invisibility". The "transparency" of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the "invisibility" refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text. "The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis." (Xu Jun, 2003).

In a word, "faithfulness" and "equivalence" should be achieved in translation. The criterion of "faithfulness" also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity. The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be "invisible", but in essence, this "invisibility" is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)

2. Translator's visibility

In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to "resist" and adopt poor translation. "Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added." (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the "resistance" translation strategy to retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation. In this context, the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator. (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

===The Challenge of Translator's Subjectivity===

As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.

1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity

With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time.

Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play.

But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity

In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood.

The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

From this point of view, professionalization also prose challenges on the translator's subjectivity. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative

The translator's "invisibility" and "manifestation" are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. "Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective "uncertainty" needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed " (Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010).

However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of "overcorrection". In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology in the historical background of the translator. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)

When there is a conflict the ideology between the translator and the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)

===Conclusion===

Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.

Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to "invisibility" and "manifestation" in contemporary literary translation, we should know "invisibility" when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of "invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible", we can better understand the meaning of "invisibility" of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of "manifestation" when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of "invisible" or "explicit" in translation is worth considering.

==='''References'''===

Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979). "Polysystem Theory". Poetics Today (1) 287.

Hermans, Theo. (1985). "The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation". London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.

Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017). 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构 [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译 Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.

Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019). 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's "invisibility" and "manifestation" in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example]. 智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.

Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰. (2014). 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性 [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.

Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011). 论译者的“隐形”和“显形” [On the translator's "invisibility" and "visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.

Shufen Huang. (2019). “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100.

Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020). 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性 [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.

ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨. (2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起 [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.

Zhiwei Gu. (2017). "On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity", English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing Japanese Language and Literature==

<center>马智星 Ma Zhixing 202020080625</center>

===Abstract===
Throughout the history of western translation, as the subject of translation, the change of translator's identity reveals a process from "invisibility" to "appearance". In different historical periods, different translators have never stopped discussing the "invisibility" and "appearance" of translators. From the perspective of historical development, this paper examines the different evolution of Lefevere's operation theory and Venuti's invisible translation theory in the western translation history, so as to analyze the change of the translator's identity and discuss the translator's subjectivity.

===Key Words===
translator's view;translation behavior;invisibility;

===摘要===
纵观西方翻译史，作为翻译主体的译者，其身份的变化彰显了一个由“隐身”到“现身”的过程。不同历史时期，不同翻译家们对于译者的“隐身”和“现身”的讨论，从未停止。本文从历史发展的角度，考察西方翻译史中勒菲弗尔的操作论和韦努迪的译者隐身翻译理论的不同演变，以此分析译者身份的变化，从而对译者的主体性进行探讨。

===关键词===
翻译观；译者行为；隐形

===Ⅰ.Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory===
In the 1980s, culture, rather than text, emerged as the Unit of translation, bringing cultural studies into a new stage of translation theory: Cultural Theory of translation. This change is called the "cultural turn" in the field of translation studies. Andrea, a representative of the Cultural School of Translation Studies, is an important theoretical figure in the field of contemporary Western Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. The translation studies school originally originated in Europe, and Lefevere's profound insight enriched and advanced the further development of this theory in the United States and the world.

Lefevere's manipulation theory is a well-known theory in the Cultural School of Translation Studies. Lefevere regards translation as a rewriting of the original and a manipulation of the original, which breaks the traditional thinking of evaluating translation with the original as the criterion. Lefevere's manipulation theory generally refers to the process of translation, adaptation, compilation, criticism and editing of literary works. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and a form of creating another text image Literary criticism, biography, film, drama, parody, reader's guide, compilation of history, criticism and editing are all rewriting of the text, which are all forms of creating another text image. In other words, translation creates the literary and cultural images of the original text, the original author, and the original text. And all rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics.(Bassnett & Lefevere, 1990:8 )

Lefevere studies translation in a broad sociocultural context, emphasizing the role of ideology, mainstream poetics and culture. Translation is bound to serve certain ideology and poetics. In his view, "rewriting" is "manipulating" . It can "manipulate" literature and "culture" , the positive aspect of which is to help the evolution of literature and society through the introduction of new concepts, new literary genres and new means of expression. The rewriting of different historical periods should be controlled by ideology and mainstream poetics, and finally be related to power and become a means to serve it. The three elements of Lefevere's manipulation theory are set out in translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. In his opinion, translation can not truly reflect the original work, mainly because it is always manipulated by three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.

'''1.Ideological'''

ideology refers to a system of ideas that reflects the interests and requirements of a particular economic form, class or social group. Its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. . Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communicative activity, will inevitably be affected by ideology. Lefevere points out that ideology has a great influence on translation, which exerts a subtle influence on the translator's thinking and translation activities. Ideology influences the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Under the control of ideology, the translator may add, delete or change the original text at will, making the translation serve his own political purposes.
At the same time, different translators will form their own ideology because of their different personal experience, educational level, social and cultural environment, etc. . If a translated work wants to enter into the social and cultural system of the target language, it is bound to be restricted by the corresponding social and ideological standards. If the translation violates or offends ideological taboos, it will be difficult to spread smoothly in the target language culture, and may even be banned. Through the analysis of famous translators such as Lin Shu's works, we can clearly feel that it was controlled and influenced by the ideology and poetics of Chinese society at that time. Ideological manipulation of translation can be reflected in the influence on the purpose of translated novels, the choice of translated texts and the application of translation strategies.-

'''2.Poetics'''

Poetics is a theory about poetry and the study of poetry and its techniques. It is also a theory about literature and art. The formation of poetics occurs in a certain period, which is often a choice for some types of practice at that time, while excluding other types. According to Lefevere, the methods of translation adopted by translators are carried out under the restriction of certain poetic factors. The study of poetics is as small as a word, as large as a sentence, the style of the whole text and the translation strategies. Translation greatly influences the interpenetration of different literary systems, not only by successfully introducing the image of a writer or a work into another literary system, but also in the introduction of new literary means into a certain poetics.

In lefevere's opinion, as the manipulator of translation, such rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because in the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. The rewriting of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriter works. In order to conform to the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the work is rewritten and to be accepted by as many readers as possible, the rewriter often makes some adjustments to the original work. Some masterpieces have also been dealt with to varying degrees so that they can be adapted to the cultural background of different social and historical conditions.

In the development of translation theory, more and more attention has been paid to the indispensability of poetics in translation. Poetics is concerned with what literature should or could be, and has two components, "One is a list of literary techniques, genres, themes, typical characters and situations, and symbols; the other is an idea of what role literature plays or should play in the overall social system. " To a certain extent, the poetic factors also determine the social role that the translation will play and the degree of its influence. The aesthetic sense of poetry in a work will disappear if the significance is emphasized but the poetic factors and the literary brilliance are ignored.

'''3.The Power of Patronage'''

Lefevere regards literary translation and other forms of rewriting as one of the social systems. This literary system has two controlling factors, one is the internal factor of the literary system, which is made up of various professionals such as critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is a patron who works outside the system and is "generally more interested in the ideology of literature than in the poetics of Literature" , "The powers (people or institutions) that promote or discourage literary reading, writing or rewriting, such as religious groups, classes, government departments, publishing houses, mass media organizations, can also be personal forces" (Lefevere, 1992:17)

In Lefevere's theory of the three elements, the most important factor is the power of the sponsor, who is always in charge of the whole process of translation. Translation itself is not an isolated act, but closely related to political, social and economic factors. Most translators translate well and safely within the space allowed by the social and political authority of their times. As "any force that may contribute to the production and dissemination of literary works and may hinder, prohibit and destroy literary works" (Chen Dehong, Zhang Nanfeng, 2000:176) , the power of patron can play a role through ideology, economic interests and social status.

Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the trend of translation activities, the development of translated literature and the social status of translators. For example, Yan Fu, as a translator and thinker, although he had his own clear goals and ideas in selecting translation materials, he was also an official appointed by the Qing government, therefore, his selection of translation materials is also controlled by the ideology of the sponsors. There is also a series of translations, translated or edited by Lin Yutang, that are closely related to the requests and suggestions of his patrons, the Pearl Buck and her husband.Lefevere's manipulation theory has opened up a new perspective for translation studies, which has shifted researchers'attention from the internal factors of the text to the external factors of the text, such as ideology, poetics and the power of patronage, this is of great significance to translation studies. Manipulation theory broadens the horizon of translation studies from text to culture. In recent years, with the rise of the Cultural School of Translation, the Study of translation from the perspective of the three elements of manipulation theory has become increasingly attractive.

=== Ⅱ. Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility===

'''2.1the Translator's Invisibility'''

Lawrence Venuti, an Italian American scholar, is an important representative and advocate of deconstructive translation theory. His translation thoughts are mainly concentrated in his monograph translator's invisibility published in 1995, his deconstructive translation essays rethinking and translation scandal.n his monograph the translator's invisibility, Venuti puts forward the term "invisibility", which is used to describe the status of translators in ontemporary British and American translation circles. He pointed out that the "invisibility" of the translation makes the reader unable to see the translator, as if he were reading the original rather than the translation.

There are two reasons why the translator is actually "invisible". First of all, translators themselves tend to translate into "fluent" English. Secondly, the way the target readers read the translated text. Whether it is prose, poetry, fiction or other types of subjects, most people accept that the ranslation is fluent in reading, without any unique language or style. It seems that the translation has reflected the author's substantive significance, and the translation seems to be not the translation but the original work.However, the premise of translation is that different languages and cultures are different and there is no absolute equivalence between them. This fluent translation method not only ignores the relationship between the author and the translator, the source text and the target text, obliterates the translator's interpretation, due status and efforts, but also conceals the differences between languages and cultures.

Therefore, Venuti puts forward the "resistance" translation strategy and advocates the translator to show his form. This kind of resistance is the courage to admit the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language and culture, and to show such differences, and even deviate from the original text. The translator should deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text to avoid the smooth translation, so that readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.

The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.

'''2.2 Foreignization -- the Core of Venuti's Translation Thought''''

In 1813, Schleiermacher pointed out in his speech on different translation methods: "either the translator should keep the author at home and let the reader approach the author as much as possible, or the translator should keep the reader at ease and let the author approach the reader as much as possible." The former shows the language and cultural differences in foreign texts and sends readers abroad, which belongs to foreignization translation; the latter, centering on nationalism, naturalizes foreign values into the target culture and invites the original author to China.

Different from Schleiermacher, Venuti believes that foreignization translation can "suppress the violence of racial center in translation" and suppress the "violent" domestication of translation cultural values in English speaking countries. Therefore, foreignization translation is also known as resistance translation, which means that the translator highlights the foreign identity of the foreign text in the translation works by adopting non fluent translation techniques, and protects the original text from the control of the cultural ideology of the target language, so that he is no longer the "implicit person" of translation. Through the selection of foreign texts and foreignization translation, it challenges the cultural hegemony of English speaking countries and achieves the goal of cultural exchange.

'''2.3The Progress of Foreignization Translation Theory'''

Venuti considers translation in the context of society and culture and criticizes the way in which foreign literature is assimilated into the target language by domestication. He proposed and advocated foreignization translation strategy or "resistance strategy", emphasizing that the translation should maintain the flavor of the foreign language text and let readers feel the exotic customs. This kind of translation strategy is not only helpful for the translator to "manifest" in translation, but also more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement in the context of world cultural integration.

Contrary to the traditional view, hold that foreignization translation is a kind of recreation, and there is no strict boundary between creation, translation and research. The original is not self-made, but the author uses the long-standing cultural materials, after reorganization, according to some values. Different cultural places are the places for readers to understand. Therefore, Venuti believes that translation should not deny the necessity of "reserving differences" under the pretext of "seeking common ground". He believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness, on the contrary, it is "the misuse of faithfulness". It will not only lose some characteristics of the original language, but also add new things. As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed..

'''2.4The Limitations of Foreignization Translation Theory'''

Translation is an activity of cross language and cultural communication, but the premise that can not be ignored is that the source language and the target language are different in ideology, values, habitual expression, logical thinking and so on. Venuti's foreignization strategy is to resist cultural hegemony when translating a weak culture into a strong one. For the weak culture and the marginalized and excluded culture, when they are translated into the strong culture by means of foreignization, the strategy is undoubtedly the best way to resist the strong culture and values and express ideas and culture. However, when a strong culture is translated into a weak culture in the same way, foreignization translation is likely to play a role in boosting the flames. In the face of superior British and American cultures, foreignized translation may subvert the norms of the target language, destroy the target language and the target language culture, or become the accomplice of cultural colonialists inadvertently.

Although foreignization translation reflects the characteristics of the source language and has positive significance for cultural communication, it imposes the language system and cultural phenomena in the source language on the target readers. For ordinary readers, without familiar language expression and the same cultural knowledge background, reading foreignization translation of foreign text will not only feel that the translation is obscure and difficult to understand, but also will gradually alienate or even exclude the foreign text. In this way, foreign texts will not be accepted by the public and can only be shelved.

Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.

The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.

==='''Ⅲ.My Thought of "Visibility"&"Invisibility" in Translation Behavior'''===
Venuti believes that in order to translate a good work, the translator must eliminate his sense of racial and cultural superiority, and try to retain the
language style of the original text, so that the target language readers can be exposed to the original foreign language and culture, so as to promote the language and cultural exchange between countries. His foreignization translation strategy can make readers better understand foreign language characteristics, foreign culture, local customs, traditional customs and aesthetic habits.

By reading foreign versions, readers can learn different ways of thinking and language expression, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their own language and cultural knowledge. With the continuous development and evolution of language, foreignization translation plays an important role in promoting cultural exchange and absorbing vocabulary and language structure from different countries. It is precisely because of foreignization translation that many foreign words, such as sofa, salon, clone, generation gap, hot spot and so on, are often used in newspapers, magazines and literary works, which greatly enriches our language and culture. And the words developed from Chinese, such as kowtow, Taichi and kungfu, also have a firm foothold in English dictionaries. Under the background of world cultural integration, this kind of translation strategy is more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement.

The purpose of vernuti's foreignization translation is to pursue cultural diversity. This strategy can effectively resist the interference and tampering of British and American cultures on the inequality of weak cultures, so as to curb ethnocentrism and cultural hegemony. At the same time, he claims that the translator's "manifestation" is of positive significance to the affirmation of the translator's value and to the improvement of the translator's status.
However, foreignization translation is not the best way to be universally accepted, and there are also limitations. Foreignization translation requires too much knowledge of readers and is not suitable for translating non literary texts. The strategy adopted in translation plays an important role in the translation, which determines what kind of translation will be produced in the end. Domestication translation and foreignization translation have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they play an irreplaceable role in each other. Therefore, in practice, no matter what translation strategy the translator chooses, he should consider the differences between readers' receptivity, text type and ideology, and strive to find a balance between different languages and cultures to achieve the best effect of equal communication.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===
Throughout the history of western translation, we find that, in addition to the special historical period, the translator has been gradually pushed from behind the scenes to the front of the screen. The traditional translation theory holds that translators must abide by the principle of faithfulness, and there is only one correct translation. In this way, translators begin to become "invisible people". People ignore that translators are independent individuals in social life and have different understanding of the world, just like everyone else. Translation is a subjective activity. Translators play an important role in intercultural communication in the process of translation. Therefore, we should consider the translator's subjectivity in translation studies.

===Reference===

Chen, Fukang.[陈福康].(1992).中国译学理论史稿[M].上海外语教育出版社.(4):28-31

Guo,Jianzhong.[郭建中].(2000).当代美国翻译理论[C].湖北教育出版社.(6):31-22

Shi,Jianwei.[施建伟].(1999).林语堂传[M].十月文艺出版社.(8):23-24.

Chen,Dehong/Zhang,nanfeng.[陈德鸿,张南峰].(2000)西方翻译理论精选[M].香港城市大学出版社.(3)25-21

Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M]. Pinter Publishers.(3)26-13

Lefevere,Andre.Translation,(1992a).Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M]. Routledge.（6）28-4

==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译==

<center>胡瑾 Hu Jin </center>

===Abstract===

With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.

===Key words===
business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation

===摘要===

随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。

===关键词===

商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译

===Introduction===

Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also rising, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)

This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract. (Jin Di 1998，115)

The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.
The third chapter is the main part of the article, namely the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)

===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===

This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively.

====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====

As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been highly valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for avoiding trade frictions effectively. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)

However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. Since the oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)

====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====

Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contract, processing contract, foreign labor contract, and agency agreement, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 26)

Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)

====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====

English business contract style is solemn with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)

=====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====

As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. For the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)

First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaic words most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)

In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. Strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)

Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. And his is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)

However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)

Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledges and terminologies. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)

=====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====

Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc.
The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. And they are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed at the beginning, the middle or the end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)

In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, while interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)

Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the behavior agent and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)

=====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====

The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure. In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)

The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)

This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)

===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===

This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.

====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====

Nida first proposed the “dynamic equivalence” theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely “formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 )

Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translationese. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)

After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced “dynamic equivalence” with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of “function”.

On the question of which level of equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)

In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into “maximum functional equivalence” and “minimum functional equivalence” since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called “maximum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while “minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)

====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====

Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)

Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86)
Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)

At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)

====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====

At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)

Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)

===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===

This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)

====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====

Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)

=====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====

The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)

Example1:“The balance 80% (Eighty percent) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties.”

译文：“合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360天予以支付。”

Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression. (Liao Ying 2005, 23)

Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”

译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”

In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 34)

Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only).”

译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”

In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained. (Liao Ying 2005, 43)

=====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====

Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)

Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.”

译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”

In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it. (Liao Ying 2005, 50)

Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows:

译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。

In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 53)

Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.

译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。

In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 63)

=====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====

“Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)

Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer.

译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。

Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.”

译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”

In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style. (Miao Xipu 2011, 113)

=====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====

English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)

Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”

译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”

In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 83)

Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.

译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。

In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)

====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====

Cliches are commonly used in official documents and usually have fixed translation methods. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)

=====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====

There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)

Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”

译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”

Example2: This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument.

译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。

Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 140)

=====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====

Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively show the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)

Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below:

译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同：

Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion.

译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。

From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example. (Miao Xipu 2011, 158)

=====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====

Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)

Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product.

译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。

This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. (Miao Xipu 2011, 190)

Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld.

译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。

This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents. (Miao Xipu 2011, 192)

Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion.

译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。

This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. (Liao Ying 2005, 103)

====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====

The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)

=====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====

Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)

Example:
Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term.

译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。

Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence. (Liao Ying 2005, 213)

=====3.3.2 Text Format=====

As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)

Contract No: ××××××

Date: Aug. ××,2013

The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××)

Legal Address: ××××××

Representative: ××××××

Tel/Fax: ××××××

The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××)

Legal Address: ×××××

Representative: ××××××

Tel/Fax: ××××××

译文：合同编号：××××××

日期：2013年8月×号

买方：××××××（以下简称××××）

注册地址：××××××

代表人：××××××

电话/传真：××××××

卖方：××××××（以下简称××××）

注册地址：××××××

代表人：××××××

电话/传真：××××××

Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of translation and original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)

===Conclusion===

To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:
In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research. (JIn Di 1998, 310)

===Reference===

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* Miao Xipu 苗锡璞. (2011). 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译 [Business English Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory]. 内蒙古财经学院学报 Journal of Inner Mongolia (1)78-238.

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* Wang Yang 汪洋. (2009). 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧 [The Lexical and Syntactic Features of Business Contract and its Translation]. 科技文汇 The Science Education Article Collects (2) 13-47.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie 202070080626 MTI英语笔译==

===Abstract===
In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.

===Key words===
Identity of translator, Translation activities, Roles of today’s translator

===题目===
论翻译活动中译者的身份

===摘要===
翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。

===关键词===
译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色

===Introduction===
It is vital for translators to play roles well in the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and much attention should be paid to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.

===1.The Importance and Necessity of valuing the issue of translator's identity===
Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operations, cultural characteristics, artistic creations, aesthetic standards, and humanistic characters. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）

The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. The translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new look, but also decide which new look to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated works. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.（Zhong and Zhou, 2006）

===2.Different Kinds of Roles Translators Have played in History===
====2.1 The Identity of Translator Under the Source Language Centralism====
Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meaning and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.

=====2.1.1 Translator as a Servant=====
There are certain common cognition and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the "servant role" both in the East and the West.

John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the "slave" can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）

American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.

Yang Jiang also said in her book ''Experience of Failures-Trial Translation'' "At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation." (Jin and Huang, 2019)

The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so the translator is like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restore the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings to meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations.

Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public to translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of "seeing things but not people". Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.

=====2.1.2 Translator as An Invisible Person=====
One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's "invisibility" and "visibility" have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both "invisibility" or "visibility" are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.

Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph ''The Translators Invisibility'' A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. And the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)

Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and stated in the article ''The Translation of Lin Shu'' that "The highest standard of literary translation is 'sublimation'." In translation, if you can not only not show the traces of being blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it will meet requirements of "sublimation". In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as "the transmigration of souls" of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）

The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph ''Les Belles Infideles'' "The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can't even feel its existence."

The "invisible" identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the "transparency" of the translation and the "invisibility" of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's "invisibility" has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）

=====2.1.3 Translator as a Painter=====
Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting. In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement, “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.

====2.2The Identity of Translator Under the Translator Centralism====
In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasized the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators.

=====2.2.1 Translator as a Manipulator=====
The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put "loyalty" and "faithfulness" in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text.

=====2.2.2 Translator as a Writer=====
Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power.

Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value. They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.

=====2.2.3 Translator as a Conqueror=====
As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror.

=====2.2.4 The Translator's "Independent" Status=====
Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.

=====2.2.5 Translator as a Creative Rebel=====
The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange.（Escarpit, 1987）On the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.

=====2.2.6 Translator as a Language Quality Controller(Li and He, 2018)=====
In recent years, with the development of the world economy and internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.

===3.The Features of the Changes of Translator’s Identity and Its Complexity===
====3.1 The Identity of Translators Changed from Invisible to Visible, from Subordinate to Dominant, from Author-centered to Translator-centered. ====
At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of "invisible man", "slave", "servant" and "painter". The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized.

Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as "manipulator", "writer", "creative rebel", "conqueror “and so on.

Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as "language quality controller", "learners of new technology and new knowledge" and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity.

Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles". On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.

====3.2 The Identity and Status of Translators are Closely connected with the Era ====
Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan "women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language" emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of "women" in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals.

====3.3 Complexity of Translation Activities and the Identity of Translators====
In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because translators different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as "learner of new knowledge and new technology", "selector of the style", and "controller of language quality". Translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.

===4. The Roles of Today’s Translators===
====4.1 Dancers in Shackles. ====
Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, a servant or a master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles. The translator should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.

====4.2 Megaphones of Real Problems.====
Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.

====4.3 Learners who Keep up With the Time.====
Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.

====4.4 Promoters of Cultural Communication.====
Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.

===Conclusion===
The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.

===References===
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[4] Lefevere, Andre (2010). ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame'': Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

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==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang 202070080635 Interpretation英语口译==
<center>顾东方 Gu Dongfang </center>

===Abstract===
In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization .

In The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.
===Key words===
domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies

===摘要===
在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。

===关键词===
归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略

=== Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===
Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.

Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author". In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.（Wang Ying 2007）

===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===
Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms "literal translation" and "free translation" are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be "expressive" and "elegant".

Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored.

The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression.

Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, "A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original". Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu.

Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original.

Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language.

There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice.

Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.(Wang Ying 2007)

===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===

===The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===
The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.

At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the translation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.

In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.

The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of "domestication". He said: "The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is." This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of "foreignization" .

In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the "invisibility" of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.(Liu Ping 2008)

===Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===
The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.

At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers.

The translator should not focus on how to be "faithful to the original", but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.
With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was "I'd rather be faithful than smooth", and advocated "preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible" and "the need for exoticism".

After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, "foreignization" has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that "Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary".(Liu Ping 2019)

===Domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===

====The relationship between culture and language====

In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system.

The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context.

Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.（Wang Hongwei 2002）

==== Translatability and untranslatability of cultures====
On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that "all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces.

In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other." It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, "Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication." Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.

On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase "客上天然居，居然天客" is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.(Wang Hongwei 2007)

====Factors influencing cultural translation strategies====

=====Motives and objectives of translation=====

Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods

=====Text type=====

Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed.

The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term "documentary translation" is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the "strength" and "clarity" of the message. " in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language.

Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve "strength" and "clarity". Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written.

Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible.

This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.(Wang Hongwei2007)

=====Acceptance by readers=====
In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader.

This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that "Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly."(Wang Hongwei2007)

===Cultural Schools of Translation===

In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of "Cultural Turn of Translation", which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture.

In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong "revolutionary" element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be "subversive" to the previous translation theories.

This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity.

Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people.

For example, Lv Jun proposes that "translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.(Wang Hongwei2007)

====Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation====

Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: "The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of "accuracy", "readability" and "acceptability". (Zhou Yongkun 2019)

例一：常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。

Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.

“螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means "following the majority of people to speak or act". A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero" is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning "only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines". Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: "Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore", which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn.

The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit

例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。

There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.

Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, "Xishi" and "Chanjuan", to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate "Xishi" and "Chanjuan", nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties.

Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.(Zhou Yongkun 2019)

In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.

5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation

The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion.

With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms "internet", "gene", "blue print", "blue print" and "blue print" are used to refer to the "Internet", "gene", "blue print" and "blue print". "Time is money", "ivory tower", "washroom".... (crocodile tears), "black humor" , and "qi gong" ), "taijiquan" , "kong fu" , "typhon”

These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.
（Wang Ying 2007）
例一.打破铁饭碗

Break the”iron rice bowl”

"Iron rice bowl" is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare "rice bowl" to an occupation, while "iron rice bowl" refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of "domestication", but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.

例二.下海

A.to jump into the sea of business

B.To turn professional

In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.

Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the "cold shoulder"? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.

例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”

A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”

B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”

Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, "God" is replaced by "Heavenly Father," which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture.

However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.

The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.（Wang Ying 2007）

===Conclusion===
With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of "foreign" translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of "cultural globalization".

It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to "alienation" translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts. (Xiong Bing 2003)

===Reference===
Wang Ying王瑛. "跨文化翻译中的归化和异化." 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.

Zhou Yongkun周永堃. "归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例." 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.

Wang Hongwei王红卫. "跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略." 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.

Xiong Bing熊兵. "文化交流翻译的归化与异化." 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.

Liu Ping刘苹. "中国翻译史上的归化和异化." 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.

--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 00:31, 22 December 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang

==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of "Political Equivalence", 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu, MTI 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
With the development of globalization, the political exchanges among countries is more frequent, and the translation of political discourse has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. The translation of political discourse is challenging, not only because it is related to important issues such as the relationship between countries, national status and political attitudes, but also because political vocabulary is developmental and new words are constantly coming into the political vocabulary, and some political words will add new connotations with the development of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the "Political Equivalence" based on Eugene Nida's "Functional Equivalence" theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of "political", "dynamic" and "balanced". On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of "Political Equivalence".

===Key words===
political equivalence; Chinese political discourse; translation strategies

===摘要===
随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。

===关键词===
政治等效; 中国政治话语; 翻译策略

===1. Introduction of Background===

Political discourse is a vehicle of communication or one kind of discourse behaviors used to articulate a country's foreign policy, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including both oral and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).

===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===

This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to promote the political communication between countries and show the country's political attitudes, theories and policies to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only an obligatory task for translators, but also of great significance to the development of translation studies.

===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===

The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it faithfully to the target language. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are quite few equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. In particular, Chinese political discourse is often presented metaphorically which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of the times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.

===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===

(1)The proposal and connotation of the "political equivalence" standard

In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term "韬光养晦" which led to the propaganda "China threat theory". Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of "political equivalence" for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political ideas of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).

In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the "political equivalence" translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic. Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to maintain a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on any one of them, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. As political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations.(Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35)

In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of "political equivalence + aesthetic representation" on the basis of the translation standard of "political equivalence" (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. In addition to meeting the requirements of "political equivalence" mentioned above, this standard also requires to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account.

In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of "political equivalence + image representation" based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing "image reproduction" and "aesthetic reproduction" is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text.

In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic events in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the "political equivalence" standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize "political equivalence"(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).

(2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida

"Firstly, the 'equivalence' emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or the writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the concept of 'dynamic' proposed by Nida in 'functional equivalence' theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience "(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).

In a word, the translation standard of "political equivalence" is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, providing theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.

===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===

First of all, translators should grasp not only the meaning of the original text, but also the political intention of the speaker or the writer, because sometimes the literal meaning of Chinese words in the political discourse cannot fully represent the real intention of the speaker or the writer.What translators should do is to learn more about the related background knowledge before translating and keep pace with the worldwide current events in daily life, and choose the proper translation strategies according to specific situations to make the translation be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or the writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of "political equivalence".(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Secondly, translators should treat both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaking country and the receiving country. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's political thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country, which requires the proper selection and use of the target language. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve "political equivalence" and even cause political events.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Thirdly, translators should know well about the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies.As we all know, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, the corresponding words in English and Chinese may have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Fourthly, translators should also know well about the differences between the two languages.In English, there are many grammatical rules different from from those of Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. If translators deal with these special expressions improperly, these expressions will hinder the realization of the "political equivalence" in translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Fifthly, to achieve "political equivalence" in translating political discourse, translation strategies should not be single, rigid but flexible and diversified. In addition, the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text and the original or even several extended connotations of the words in it,instead,translators should recognize the real connotations of the political terms according to the context and different occasions. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or the writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

lastly, translators should ensure the political correctness in the translation of political discourse using their knowledge reserves. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the "minefields" of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to "translation storm" and affect the "political equivalence" of translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

===6. Translation Strategies under The Standard of Political Equivalence===

Under the guidance of the standard of "political equivalence", the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.

(1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse

Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in "现代化" and "城镇化", so are abbreviations like "‘十四五’规划", "四个自信", etc., and four-character phrases such as "和平共处", "和而不同", etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as "‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打", among which "老虎(tiger)" and "苍蝇(flies)" refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. Therefore, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the "political equivalence"standard.

(2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)

① supplement

The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. When Chinese political terms are translated for foreigners, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.

The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplementing relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-2025) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplementing detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”

②Omission

English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are quite few equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being faithful to the original text.

The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasis, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available without changing the meaning. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.

(3) Translation strategies for metaphor

Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).

Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):

① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities

Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.

For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as "Long March of the new era". The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and its people. On the one hand, the literal translation of "The Long March" retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.

② Substitution of the metaphorical entities

After all, the differences between languages far outweigh the similarities, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text by using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead the reader. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.

For example, Foreign Ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And the word“scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers will not understand it.

③literal translation+explanation

In some other cases, where either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation + explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only maintains the cultural characteristics of the source language while enabling English readers to be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.

For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by the Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.

④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly

Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may encounter the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first ipriority to convey the correct political implication.

For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Since rice is the staple food in most parts of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down-to-earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of "rice bag" or "vegetable basket" without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.

===7. Conclusion===

From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, it can be seen that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of "political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic.

The translation of political discourse has its unique characteristics and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful in choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.

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杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of "Political Equivalence"-- Taking the translation of "韬光养晦" as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.

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==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666 俄语语言文学==

<center>张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666</center>

===Abstract===

Russian proverbs are produced under the specific cultural background and have rich cultural connotations. They are an important part of Russian language and culture. However, there are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, and the language forms of Russian and Chinese proverbs have their own characteristics. This chapter attempts to classify Russian proverbs and explore the translation methods and Strategies of Russian proverbs.(This chapter only discusses the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs and the English translation of proverbs is for reference only.)

===Key words===
Russian proverb，classification，Chinese translation methods，translation strategies

===题目===
俄语谚语的分类、汉译方法及策略

===摘要===
俄语谚语于特定的文化背景下产生，具有丰富的文化内涵，是俄语语言文化的重要组成部分。而俄汉两族文化差异较大，俄汉谚语语言形式各具特色，俄语谚语的翻译问题成为一个难题。本文试对俄语谚语进行分类，探究俄语谚语的翻译方法及翻译策略。

===关键词===
俄语谚语；分类；汉译方法；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===
Proverbs are a genre of folk literature（Wang Yanrong 2013,114) , and they are simple, popular and meaningful fixed sentences commonly used by the people. Generally speaking, proverbs are rhythmic in form, including various life phenomena in content, rich in educational significance, vividly reflecting the cultural connotations and characteristics of a nation, and are the result of wisdom of the broad masses of people and the essence of a national language（Zhou Changyu 2006,5). Therefore, understanding proverbs is an effective way to understand a nation. Proverbs of different nationalities have their own characteristics. The translation of proverbs among different nationalities has become an important issue in translation studies. This chapter attempts to explore the translation methods and principles of Russian proverbs.

===2.Classification of Russian proverbs===
The formation of Russian proverbs is inseparable from the production, life, customs, religion, culture and history of the nation, and has a distinctive national style. The Russian and Chinese languages belong to different language systems, and there is a big difference in the way of expression. In order to fully understand Russian proverbs and grasp the translation methods of Russian proverbs, this chapter first compares Russian and Chinese proverbs, and divides Russian proverbs into three categories based on the degree of consistency between Russian and Chinese proverbs, namely “complete consistency” and “partial consistency” and “complete inconsistency”（Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

====2.1 Complete consistency====

"Complete consistency" means that Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs are completely consistent in terms of thinking and figurative meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese that fully correspond to them. The number of such proverbs is relatively small, but they reflect the cultural commonality between the Russian and Chinese languages, indicating that the two peoples are similar in cognitive mode, thinking mode and personality characteristics between the two countries(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

For example, there is an ancient Chinese proverb in the Biography of Zhao Chongguo, The History of the Former Han Dynasty in ancient my country “百闻不如一见.” The meaning of this sentence is “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times,” which expresses that hearing more is not as reliable as seeing it. And there is a widely used proverb in Russian “Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать.(Jia Shufen 1996,146)” They are completely consistent and show that the people of the Russian and Han ethnic groups have the same understanding of the importance of “seeing with their own eyes.”

Another example is “Из искры возгорится пламя” in Russian. It was first written by Decembrists, famous Russian poet, A. I. Odoevsky(А. И. Одоевский) in reply to Pushkin’s support of Decembrists’ revolution, and was later written by Lenin. The application in Iskra is well known and circulated. The Chinese counterpart “星星之火, 可以燎原(A single spark can start a prairie fire)” is widely known and become a proverb because of Mao Zedong's articles(Chen Ying 2000,89).

Similarly, "Беда не приходит одна." and "祸不单行(Misfortune never come alone)(Jia Shufen 1996,6)", "Сытый голотного не разумеет." and "饱汉不知饿汉饥(Fatty people do not know hungry people are hungry)(Jia Shufen 1996,378)", "Близкий сосед лучше дальней родни." and "distant relatives are not as good as neighbors", “Одно дерево - не роща, одна птица - нестая” and "孤树不成林，孤鸟不成群(A single tree does not form forests, a lone bird does not form flocks)(Wang Jinhua,Zhang Li 2006,76)", etc., are completely consistent in image and meaning.

====2.2 Partial consistency====
"Partial consistency" means that Russian proverbs are the same or similar in thinking, cultural image or meaning to Chinese proverbs. Such Russian proverbs can find corresponding or related proverbs in Chinese to a certain extent. The large number of such proverbs reflects the differences in the understanding of different things and phenomena between nations(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

For example, the Russian proverb "Расти как грибы после дождя" means "grow like mushrooms after rain", which means that things develop rapidly. Due to factors such as geographical location and natural environment, Russia is rich in mushrooms, and mushrooms grow rapidly after rain in Russia. In the same way, our country's "雨后春笋(bamboo shoots in spring)" have also grown rapidly, becoming a proverb that expresses the rapid development and emergence of things(Chen Ying 2000,90). This pair of Russian and Chinese proverbs uses the same thinking mode and different cultural images to express the same meaning.

Another example is the Russian proverb "Первый блин комом." It means that the first time you make a cake, you will always make a dough, which means that the first attempt is always easy to fail. The "блин" in the proverb is the unique Russian food "Russian pancake", which reflects the distinctive national characteristics. In Chinese, the proverb "三脚难踢，开锣的戏难唱(It's hard to kick the first three feet, and it's hard to sing the gongs)" uses images such as "三脚(three feet)" and "开锣的戏(plays with gongs)" to express that things are difficult at the beginning of attempts, and that "万事开头难(everything is difficult at first)" meaning. The two are very similar in their embodied meanings.
Some other examples included in this category are:

(1)Два медведя в одной берлоте неуживутся. 一个洞穴中不会住两只熊(Two bears in one berlot won't get along)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).

(2)И Москва несразу строилась. 莫斯科不是一下就建成的(And Moscow was not built immediately)(Chen Ying 2000,89).

(3)Гром не грянет, мужик не перекрестится. 不打雷，农夫不祷告(Thunder won't strike, the man won't cross)(Yang Min 2017, 202).

(4)Скарть со стола, и дружба сплыла.桌布一撤，友谊全无 (Scrap off the table and friendship floated away)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).

These Russian proverbs correspond to the Chinese "一山不容二虎(The mountain cannot accommodate two tigers)", "一口吃不成个胖子(You can't make a fat man with one bite)(Chen Ying 2000,90)", "临时抱佛脚(Temporary holding a Buddha's feet)", and "人走茶凉(No sooner has the person gone away than the tea cools down)(Lei Yumei 2014,114)". These sets of corresponding Russian and Chinese proverbs have different cultural images, but the meaning is the same.

====2.3 Complete inconsistency====
There are some Russian proverbs that have nothing to do with Chinese proverbs either in image or meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be classified as "completely inconsistent"(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114). The Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have their own unique national cultures. The differences in political economy, geographical environment, climate characteristics, vegetation, animals, historical allusions, living customs, religious beliefs, etc. have given birth to a series of ethnic proverbs(Yang Min 2017, 200).

For example, the literal translation of the Russian proverb "Дело-табак" is "事关烟草（it's about tobacco.）" What does it mean? It turned out that the boatmen on the Volga River used to hang tobacco bags around their necks to prevent the tobacco from getting wet. This sentence was used to remind people that the water depth is close to the neck. It has now been used to express "things are bad, the situation is not good". (Chen Ying 2000,90)

Another example is the Russian proverb "Хвалилась синица, что море зажжет." literally translated as "山雀吹嘘要把大海点燃(The tit boasted to light the sea)". This proverb comes from an allusion in Krylov’s fable: "The tit yelled everywhere that it was going to burn the sea. The news reached the animals' ears. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. "This proverb satirizes those who like to brag, but can't get things done. Such ethnic-specific proverbs are sometimes difficult to understand, and it is necessary to trace their roots to understand their meaning(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

These three types of Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs have different levels of consistency in content, and the degree of difficulty of understanding also varies. Therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to select one or a combination of multiple translation methods for translation according to different proverb classifications to achieve the purpose of "prescribe the right medicine".

===3. Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs===
Chinese and foreign translation theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" to Qian Zhongshu's "Concept of Transcendence"; from Qu Qiubai's "Concept of Equivalence" to "Functional Equivalence" by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A•Nidar Or "dynamic equivalence". We can see that the central point in their proposition is that the translation should faithfully express the meaning of the original text and reflect the appearance of the original text(Sheng Yichao 2009,110).

On the basis of this important point of view, we analyze the classification of Russian proverbs and apply various methods comprehensively in order to obtain a more perfect translation. Specifically, there are the following methods: translation method, set translation method, literal translation method, free translation method, borrowed translation method, and added word and annotation method(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

====3.1 Equivalent translation(对译法)====
"Equivalent translation" is directly using Chinese proverbs corresponding to Russian proverbs for translation. When using this translation method, the information conveyed by the literal and image meanings of Russian and Chinese proverbs should be the same. This translation method can correctly convey the pragmatic information contained in the image of the original language, enhance the readability of the translation, while completely retaining the rhetorical color of the original language, so that readers can understand the original text most accurately(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

This translation method is applicable to the "completely consistent" Russian proverbs mentioned above. For the Russian proverbs listed in 1.1, the existing proverbs in Chinese proverbs can be directly used as translations, and for example:

(1)Век живи, век учись. 活到老,学到老。(Live and learn.)

(2)Капля камень точит. 滴水穿石。(Constant dripping wears away a stone.)

(3)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。(Strike while the iron is hot.) (Jia Shufen 1996,135)

====3.2 Corresponding and literal translation====

In the Translatology Dictionary , the translation method “corresponding” is interpreted as the mutual translation of synonymous idioms. If the content, form, and rhetoric color of the target language roughly match the target language, then it is possible to adopt this method(Fang Mengzhi 2003,111). If the images and metaphors are the same or similar, this translation method is more appropriate; while the literal translation method is based on the form of the original text, which retains the metaphor, image and national characteristics of Russian proverbs. These two methods can be used simultaneously in translation practice.

“Corresponding” is suitable for the translation of "partially consistent" Russian proverbs introduced in 1.2 of this chapter. "Partially consistent" Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese with corresponding proverbs with different images but the same or similar meaning. At this time, if the “equivalent translation” is adopted, readers will be misunderstood and the translated language will lose the national characteristics of Russian proverbs. Therefore, when translating such proverbs, the original image should be kept as much as possible and the expression form of Chinese proverbs should be used. In addition to the examples already mentioned above, there are similar ones:

(1)Ложка дёгтю в бочку мёду. 一勺焦油坏了一桶蜜(A spoonful of tar breaks a bucket of honey), referring to the Chinese proverb "一粒老鼠屎坏了一锅汤(A mouse poop breaks a pot of soup)"(Jia Shufen 1996,145)

(2) Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟(No fire, no smoke)， refers to the Chinese proverb "无风不起浪(No wind, no waves)"(Jia Shufen 1996,240).

(3) Шила в мешке не устаишь. 口袋藏不住坠子(Pendant cannot be hidden in the pocket）, refers to the Chinese proverb "纸包不住火(Paper cannot keep fire)"(Jia Shufen 1996,303).

Such Russian proverbs refer to the expression form of Chinese proverbs. On the basis of retaining the language structure characteristics of Russian proverbs, they do not lose the national cultural characteristics of Russian proverbs. They are successful translations. “Corresponding” uses the expression form of Chinese proverbs to make the translation easier to be accepted by readers. While using the translation method “corresponding”, in fact, the literal translation method is also used. The two are closely combined to maximize the original image and style(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

====3.3 Free translation and loan translation====
The national cultures of China and Russia are quite different. When Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs use completely different figurative images, the figurative images in the literal original text will make the translation difficult to understand and accept, or cause misunderstandings. Using “corresponding” to translate Russian proverbs may cause deviation in understanding. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, free translation can be used for translation at this time. Free translation refers to a translation method that readjusts the structure of the original text on the basis of the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the original text clearly in a new way of expression.

For example, the Russian proverb "Язык до Киева довезёт. 舌头（语言）把你带到基辅。(The tongue (language) brings you to Kiev)" Kiev is an ancient city in the former Soviet Union. In ancient times, Kiev was called the mother city of the Russians and one of the most famous cities (Chen Ying 2000,90). Therefore, as long as you ask for directions, you will find Kiev. Therefore, this Russian proverb actually emphasizes the importance of "язык". The literal translation will obviously make readers puzzled. However, it can be translated as "有嘴走遍天下（With a mouth to travel all over the world）" through free translation, which is more appropriate and easy to understand(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

"На воре шапка горит(Jia Shufen 1996,176)." is literally translated as "小偷的帽子着火(The thief's hat is on fire)". If you don’t understand the source of the proverb, you cannot understand its meaning. This proverb originated from a story: Someone found a thief stealing, so he shouted in the crowd, "The thief's hat is on fire." When the thief heard it, he involuntarily looked at his head and exposed himself and was arrested. . Through free translation, this proverb can be translated as "the thief has a guilty conscience", so that the meaning of the original text can be more accurately conveyed to the reader(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

There are always commonalities and individualities in Russian and Chinese national cultures. Therefore, as mentioned in 1.2, there are cases where Russian and Chinese proverbs express the same or similar meanings in different cultural images. In this case, when the differences between Russian and Chinese proverbs are too prominent, you can also consider loan translation to translate, that is, by analyzing the internal meaning of Russian proverbs, borrowing Chinese proverbs with different images but expressing the same meaning for translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). E.g:

(1) Семь раз примерь, один раз отрежь.三思而后行(Jia Shufen 1996,345)。(Look before you leap.)

(2) Всякая лисица свой хвост хвалит. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸(Jiang Xiuhua 1999,166)。(Every cook praises his own broth.)

(3) Горбатого могила исправит. 禀性难移。(Human nature is hardly changed.)(Ye Fanglai 1987,102)

Using this translation method, the translation is not exactly the same as the original, and the content and form of the two are also very different. This distinguishes the loan translation method from the equivalent translation counterpart translation method and the “corresponding”. In fact, the loan translation method can be regarded as a variant of the free translation method, because the loan translation is actually an expression made by re-adjusting the structure of the original text on the basis of understanding the meaning of the original text. But it should also be distinguished from free translation, because the loan translation method borrows the proverbs already in Chinese. This method has lost the image in the original proverb and cannot be called a perfect translation method. It should be avoided as much as possible(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

====3.4 Addition and annotation====

Addition and annotation are compensatory translation methods, which supplement and reveal the cultural information in the original text.(Wang Yanrong 2013,114), the two explanations in the translatology dictionary are "to add some words according to the needs of semantics, rhetoric or syntax in translation, so as to faithfully and smoothly express the ideological content of the original text." And a translator's compensation method in order to fully express the original semantics and style in the process of translation is to help achieve the equivalence of translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2003,111)

Many Russian proverbs may produce pragmatic failure after literal translation. In order to avoid this failure, we can use the method of adding words or adding notes to introduce the image and cultural background of the original text in the form of annotation. This method makes the translation more vivid and intuitive, while retaining the image of the original text, showing the national characteristics of Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

For example, the Russian proverb "И на солнце есть пятна." is literally translated as "太阳上也有黑点。(There are black spots on the sun.)" This translation is obviously difficult for readers to accept and understand, but if the Chinese proverb "金无足赤，人无完人(Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)" with the same meaning is added after it to reveal its connotation, “太阳上也有黑点—金无足赤，人无完人。(There are also black spots on the sun—Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)” This form of translation can allow readers to understand the meaning of the proverb clearly and keep the original image in Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

Another example is "В Тулу со своим самоваром не ездят." literally translated as "不要带着茶炊去图拉。(Don't take a samovar to Tula.)" This Russian proverb has a strong Russian national color. Tula was once famous throughout the country for the production of samovars, and was the center of Russia's metallurgical industry and metal manufacturing. Taking the samovar to Tula, which is rich in samovars, actually means "make an unnecessary move". This proverb is very vivid. Russians can naturally understand and understand its meaning, but as Chinese readers who do not understand Russian culture, it may be difficult to understand the literal translation of this proverb.

Therefore, this proverb can be translated as "带着茶炊去图拉—多此一举(Bring a samovar to Tula--make an unnecessary move)", or add a note in brackets: "Tula is famous for making samovars." In this way, readers can not only understand the meaning of proverbs, but also intuitively feel the cultural elements of Russia. It can said as killing two birds with one stone(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). This translation method is often used in the situations described in 1.3. Examples also include:

（1）За двумя зайцами погонишься ни одного не поймаешь. 一人追双兔，到头两手空—一心不可二用。(One man chases two rabbits, and in the end two hands are empty--no man can do two things at once.)

（2）На языке мёд а в сердце лёд. 嘴上甜似蜜,心里冷若冰—笑里藏刀。(Sweet as honey on the mouth, cold as ice in the heart--hide a dagger in a smile.)

The above-mentioned several Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should not be limited to one of them. We should make a specific analysis according to the specific situation, flexibly use different translation methods, and learn from others' strong points, so as to achieve a harmonious translation.

===4. Translation strategies of Russian proverbs===

Russian proverbs are concise in language, rich in meaning, vivid in image, beautiful in rhythm and strong in national color. It is not easy to translate them into Chinese accurately and vividly. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should pay attention to the translation strategies in addition to the flexible application of various translation methods.

====4.1 Trace the origin and accurately interpret====
There are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese. When interpreting Russian proverbs, translators are likely to stay on the surface of the text and interpret the meaning from the text, resulting in misunderstanding and translation errors. Therefore, when translating Russian proverbs, especially those with historical or national background, we should carefully examine their allusions, trace back to the source, and accurately interpret the hidden meanings of proverbs.

For example, the Russian proverb "Недосол на столе, а пересол на спине." is literally translated as "菜淡了在桌上，菜咸了在背上。(The dish is light on the table, and the dish is salty on the back.)" This proverb can be traced back to the time of serfdom. Salt was a very valuable thing at that time, and those who wasted salt will be punished. Russians usually have salt shakers on their tables. If the dishes are weak, you can add salt at will, but if they are salty, the cook will be punished by whipping his back. Therefore, the basic meaning of the proverb is that if the dish is cooked, salt can be added, and if the dish is salted, the cook will be beaten. (Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun 2008,149)
However, this proverb was once translated as "多一事不如少一事(One thing more is worse than one thing less)" or "宁缺毋滥(It is better to leave a deficiency uncovered than to have it covered without discretion)". This kind of translation is obviously not appropriate. It is "taking the words too literally" without understanding the historical background(Ye Fanglai 1987,101).

Similar proverbs include "Была бы спина, а то будет вина." literally translated as "只要有脊背，就会有过错(As long as there is a back, there will be fault)" , this Russian proverb also contains the cultural image of "back". As mentioned above, whipping the back was a common punishment method at that time. At the same time, since the whipped person violated the discipline, not the law, there was a certain degree of randomness in determining the punishment object and the degree of punishment. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

Therefore, this proverb actually expresses the meaning of "欲加之罪，何患无辞(Give a dog a bad name and hang him)". If you don't know Russian history, you can't understand the meaning of this proverb. Therefore, it is very important to study the allusions of proverbs and understand their deep cultural meanings.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

====4.2 Retain characteristics and respect national culture====
Proverbs are the cultural crystallization of a nation and have distinctive national characteristics. When translating Russian proverbs, attention should be paid to the comprehensive use of multiple translation methods, to maximize the retention of national characteristics, not only to restore the original image and style, but also to reflect the national cultural connotation, while taking into account the reader's understanding and acceptance. At this time, we may use the methods of addition and annotation mentioned above, and try to avoid over-domestication of Russian proverbs, and respect the national culture. We should analyze it in the specific original text and translate it flexibly(Zhou Changyu 2006,42).

For example, the Russian proverb "Не всё коту масленица, бывает и великий пост." is literally translated as "a cat does not celebrate the festival of Marriage every day, and it always has a Lent." Readers who do not understand the Russian national culture may not understand the meaning of this proverb, if you add a comment at this time, “In Russian festivals, the 7-day Maslenitsa can best reflect the traditions of the Russian nation. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

The “Ross-Robs Festival” originated from the Orthodox Church. The 40-day fast in the Orthodox During the period, people are forbidden to eat meat and entertainment. Therefore, in the week before the start of Lent, people indulge in joy and every family pay close attention to eating meat to make up for the ascetic life during the fast period."If the background cultural knowledge contained in the proverb is revealed, readers will be able to more clearly understand the meaning of the proverb "good times will not last long, and a feast is hard to come by".(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

Another example is the proverb "Не учи рыбу плавать. 不要教鱼儿游泳(Don't teach fish to swim)". Some people have translated the proverb as "不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)". This translation borrowed and translated the image in the original text into a well-known allusion(“班门弄斧”) image in Chinese people. The distortion of the cultural connotation in proverbs is excessive domestication, so it is not appropriate.(Zhou Changyu 2006,42)

====4.3 Pay attention to expression and focus on language use====

On the one hand, as a unique language form, proverbs are popular among the people, and they are a kind of spoken language style with the characteristics of spoken language style. Therefore, in the translation of Russian proverbs, the characteristics of easy to understand and easy to speak should also be reflected in the translation; On the other hand, as the famous Russian linguist A. A. Potebnya（А. А. Потебня） said, proverb “is a short literary work”. Proverbs are also a kind of folk literature, which is actually a literary form. We should pay attention to the aesthetic characteristics of proverbs in translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).

For example, if the proverb “Не учи рыбу плавать.” mentioned above is translated as “不要教鱼儿游泳(Don’t teach fish to swim)”, obviously the literal translation method will accurately retain the original metaphorical image while retaining the colloquial nature of the proverb. It is easy to understand and the translation of "不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)(“班门弄斧”is an Chinese allusion)" is blunt and overly written(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).

Another example is "Слово серебро, молчание золото" literally translated as "雄辩是银，沉默是金(eloquence is silver, silence is gold)" to express the phonology in the original text very well and make people read it catchy. If the Chinese proverb "是非只为多开口，烦恼皆因强出头(Right and wrong just for more mouth, worry all because of strong)", although the meaning is the same, it loses the metaphorical image and popularity of the original text; as for the aesthetic characteristics, the translation of the Russian proverb "Красна птица пером, а человек умом." "鸟美在羽毛，人美在头脑(The beauty of birds is in the feathers, and the beauty of people is in the mind.)" This translation adopts the method of literal translation, while preserving the original image, it also restores the structure of the original text and the rhetorical symmetry, which conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original text(Zhou Changyu 2006,44).

===5. Conclusion===
In short, Russian and Chinese are two very different languages, and the proverbs of the two ethnic groups also have their own characteristics in language form. The translation must take into account the unique style, connotation and meaning of the original text at the same time, while maintaining the fluency of sentences, perfect expression, and achieving the harmony and unity of sound, rhyme and meaning. It is by no means easy, and it is a major test for translators. Translators should not only have a thorough understanding of the original text and the cultural background of the original text, and be proficient in tempering words, but also should flexibly use various translation methods, master translation strategies, and strive to accurately express the profound meaning of Russian proverbs.

===6. References===
[1]Jia Shufen.贾淑芬.(1996). 简明俄汉语谚语词典[A Concise Dictionary of Russian and Chinese Proverbs]. 辽宁大学出版社[Liaoning University Press].

[2] Ye Fanglai.叶芳来.(2005) 俄汉谚语俗语词典[A Dictionary of Russian and Chinese Proverbs].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

[3] Yang Min.杨敏.俄汉谚语翻译中的形象处理.(2017).[Image processing in the translation of Russian-Chinese proverbs]. 文化学刊[Journal of Cultural Studies]200-203.

[4]Wang Xingsong王兴松. (2016). 浅谈俄语谚语的翻译.[On the translation of Russian proverbs].读书文摘[Reading Abstract]78.

[5]Lei Yumei.雷玉梅.(2014).文化视角下的俄语谚语翻译.[Translation of Russian proverbs from a cultural perspective]. 边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]113-114.

[6] Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun. (2008). 马为群，张晓云．谚语版俄语语法教程.[Proverbs Edition Russian Grammar Course]. 哈尔滨工业大学出版社.[Harbin Institute of Technology Press].

[7] Wang Yanrong.王艳荣.(2013).俄语谚语的翻译方法. [The translation method of Russian proverbs]. 安徽文学[Anhui Literature (second half of the month)]114.

[8] Zhou Changyu.周长雨. (2006).俄语谚语的汉译问题. [Chinese translation of Russian proverbs]. 哈尔滨工业大学.[Harbin Institute of Technology].

[9] Sheng Yichao.盛义朝.(2009).俄语谚语翻译初探. [A Probe into the Translation of Russian Proverbs]. 吉林省教育学院学报.[Journal of Jilin Province Education College] 110-111.

[10]Chen Ying.陈颖.(2000).从俄汉谚俗语的对译看民族个性. [Looking at the national personality from the translation of Russian and Chinese proverbs].黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]89-90.

[11]Wang Jinhua, Zhang Li.王金花,张丽.(2006).俄语谚语翻译中有关问题的探讨 [Discussion on Related Issues in Russian Proverb Translation]. 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版)[Journal of Inner Mongolia University of Finance and Economics (Comprehensive Edition)]76-78.

[12]Yu Jun.于军.(2008).浅析俄语谚语及其汉译问题.[Analysis of Russian proverbs and their Chinese translation]. 考试周刊.[Examination Weekly]226-227.

[13] Ye Fanglai. 叶芳来. (1987).浅谈俄语谚语的翻译.[On the translation of Russian proverbs]. 郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版).[Journal of Zhengzhou University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)] 99-103.

[14] Jiang Xiuhua. 姜秀华.(2000). 俄汉语谚语在民族文化方面及修辞特点的对比.[Comparison of Russian and Chinese proverbs in terms of national culture and rhetoric characteristics]. 呼伦贝尔学院学报.[Journal of Hulunbuir University] 66-68.

[15] Hu Aimin.胡爱民.(1986).也谈俄语谚语和俗语的民族色彩.[Also on the national colors of Russian proverbs and sayings]. 外语与外语教学.[Foreign Languages Teaching]52-54.

==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory 李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学==
<center>李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学 </center>

===Abstract===

In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.

===Keywords===
Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered Theory

===摘要===
在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。

===关键词===
联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论

===1.Introduction===
====1.1.Research Background and Significance====

In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, intercultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures.

This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture''“Translators are allowed more liberties on what one might be tempted to call‘the purely linguistic level,’ certainly if the translation is not meant to‘represent’ the original in the translators' culture, but simply to help translators refine their knowledge of their own language.”(Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4).

As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpreting is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpreting strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.

Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that "in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpreting research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpreting by interpreters" (Liu Yingjun 2014,141- 143).

We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpreting. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpreting studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting setting. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao Xiaomei 2020, 105- 108). However, different interpreting settings have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple settings to interpret.

In addition, many Chinese liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpreting from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and "translator-centered theory". The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.（Wang Shaolong 2020,39-40/Mao Zhen 2020,33-34）

====1.2.Definition of Liaison Interpreting====

Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpreting and one-way interpreting according to the direction of interpreting. The liaison interpreting we discuss here is a typical two-way interpreting. We generally believe that liaison interpreting is a kind of interpreting which is different from conference interpreting and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpreting. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpreting earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,12).

This is the early propositions which business interpreting is equivalent to liaison interpreting, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpreting settings, the connotation of liaison interpreting has been expanded to include various forms of interpreting within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a "tripartite communication" model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14).

Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpreting, liaison interpreting is a "bilateral interpreting" within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpreting, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpreting.

====1.3.Research Method====

Based on the "reader-centered theory" of reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory" of "Eco-translatology", this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpreting.

===2.Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===

====2.1.Reception Aesthetics====
Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term "reception aesthetics" was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school.(Jin Huxiong 2002, 264-267)

Izer once said, "Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature"(Guo Hongan 1997，338-339).

There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the "the horizon of expectations"， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading.(Wang Tong 2020, 198-199)

The second concept is the "response-inviting structure", which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a "text blank" in the text that only the reader can fill.(Jin Huxiong 2002,274)

"Text blank" can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.

====2.2.Translator-Centered Theory====
The concept of "translator-centered theory" is closely related to "Eco-translatology" put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen. "Eco-translatology" is a new concept, and there are still many controversies and misunderstandings about it among Chinese scholars. In the opinion of Leng Yuhong, "If we want to construct a systematic and complete “Eco-translatology Theory”, the first thing to be overturned must be the 'translator-centered'!" (Leng Yuhong 2011, 72-73).

The main reason for his conclusion is that he has a misunderstanding of "translator-centered". Leng Yuhong believes that the "translator-centered" puts the "translator" above the "original text" and the "recipient", and takes the translator to an extreme like “translation-center theory”.

Some other scholars believe that, on the one hand, the "translator-centered theory" fails to break through the dichotomization of subject and object; on the other hand, it is interpreted from the perspective of concrete operation instead of philosophical reasoning. Therefore, it lacks an organic connection with the anti-centrism and equality core contained in the Oriental ecological wisdom.(Luo Dijiang 2017， 65)

Then professor Hu retorted, the "translator-centered" concept, in the process of translation is mainly reveals the "leading" role of the translator in the translation process, specifically refers to the translator in the translation process must first "adapt to" the ecological environment of translation, and then, the translator in according to the ecological environment of translation to decide on the "choice" of translation , which includes the translator "selective adaptation" and "adaptive selection" and so on, all the translation behaviors of translation activity is determined by translator, this is the core and intention of "translator-center theory . In other words, the translation system is pluralistic, and the translator should actively adapt to the environment in the process of translation, instead of destroying the relationship between each subject in the translation system to reach the dominant position. Professor Hu also emphasizes the distinction between "translator-centered theory" and "subjectivity" in order to emphasize the dynamic role that translators can play in translation.(Hu Gengshen 2013, 208, 218-219)

Yin suiqiong also believes that ecological paradigm is not a commonality between translation studies and natural ecosystems, but a feature shared by all social science research systems. Hu said that Yin's erroneous conclusion is based on a misunderstanding of the concept of "paradigm", and that “Eco-translatology” and its "translator-centered theory" are the common beliefs of recent translation scholars, rather than emphasizing that they are unique to translatology and natural ecosystems.(Yin Suiqiong 2017, 56-62/ Hu Gengshen 2017, 63-68)

In addition, there are many arguements about “Eco-translatology” and "translator-centered theory" in China, we think that the “translator-centered theory” under the perspective of “Eco-translatology” not mean that "translator" above the "source language" and "recipients", but hope from the perspective of "translator" thinking about the problems in the translation process and the solution to the problem, emphasizes the "translator" actively adapt to the social scene and positive response to this strategy.

Then, what is the relationship between the "reader-centered theory" of reception aesthetics and the "translator-centered theory" of Eco-translatology studies? We think that the two are dialectical unity, reception aesthetics require the translator to fully consider the recipient's cultural quality and cognitive levels, but completely according to the requirements of the recipient to make the choice of translation strategy and translation quality evaluation is too biased, because recipient's aesthetic of translation products too subjective and lack of professionalism, and "translator-centered theory" advocate that the difficulties encountered in the translation should be solved by translators according to their professional judgment and also encourages translators to seek more change through its own development strategy.

Of course, "reader-centered theory" and "translator-centered theory" are not diametrically opposed, and translator-centered theory also requires translators to consider the needs of recipients of translation products. It can be said that "reader-centered theory" is a reference item of "translator-centered theory", and "translator-centered theory" is a further development of "reader-centered theory".

===3.Positioning of liaison interpreter===
In the field of interpretation, there have always been different opinions on the principle of fidelity of interpretation products: some people believe that "sentence by sentence translation" should be carried out, and interpretation products should be faithful to the original text in form. That is, the interpreter should "be like a megaphone" ; Some people believe that interpreters should take into account the cultural context in which communication takes place, and that interpretation products should be faithful to the "meaning" of the original text, that is, the central meaning expressed by the speaker .(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,153)

However, there are significantly more supporters of the latter than the former. This is similar to the debate on the principle of translation in translation studies: literal translation v.s. free translation. The discussion of translation principles is generally focused on literature. At present, we generally believe that different translation strategies should be adopted according to different literary genres and themes. It is also similar in the study of interpretation. Liaison interpreters should adopt different interpreting strategies according to different interpretation scenes and themes. The difference between liaison interpretation and translation comes from R. Bruce W. Anderson's "tripartite communication" theory.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14）

Liaison interpreters are directly facing customers when interpreting, and their interpreting products will be delivered to customers in a timely manner, so the quality of their translation products depends entirely on customers' judgment at present. So when we think about the role of the liaison interpreters, one of the most important references is what the client expects of the interpreter. In addition, the interpreter acts as a bridge between the two sides in communication, and the role of the liaison interpreter is more prominent than that of other types of interpreters.

Therefore, the positioning of the interpreters on themselves is also very important. In addition, another characteristic that distinguishes liaison interpreters from other types of translators is that liaison interpretation is often in a dynamic and diversified scene, unlike other translators who are only in a single translation setting. Therefore, analysis of the interpreting setting is also a part that cannot be ignored when discussing the role positioning of the interpreter.

====3.1.Client's Expectation of the Interpreter's Role====
From the perspective of reception aesthetics, clients will estimate and expect interpretation products in advance according to their reading experience and aesthetic taste. Donova-Cagigos talked about the measurement and judgment of interpretation quality, and believed that if "faithfulness" could not be quantified, it could only be relevant to specific communicative occasions so the results of the clients expectation investigation, such as the user's preference for the delivery of the main idea over the full translation, can be used as an important criterion for rating accuracy and omission.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，169)

This requires the liaison interpreter to adjust his/her role to the client's expectations. Each user's knowledge base, education level and other aspects of the difference will lead to their expectations of liaison interpreters change. We divide clients' expectations on interpreters into two categories: one is that interpreters are expected to interpret faithfully, neutrally and impartially, without mixing their own interpretation with concise output of source language information; The other is to expect interpreters to add their own explanations through omission, addition and other interpreting techniques when interpreting source language information, so as to make interpreting products better understood.

The role expectations of the above two kinds of clients depend largely on the nature of the clients and the purpose for which the clients accept the interpretation. The first kind of clients who hope interpreter completely follow the principle of "faithfulness" , have a comprehensive understanding of the areas involved in interpretation, they receive interpretation mainly for the purpose of obtaining extended knowledge of known fields or general information, or because of the limitation of interpretation theme requires an interpreter to stay neutral, such as legal interpreting.

In this regard, Collados Aís studied the requirements on the interpretation quality standards of the interpreting clients who are experts and found that the subjects did not give low marks to the content errors in the "pleasant to hear" interpretation, but scored them according to other standards. The principle of "faithfulness", which the clients attach most importance to, did not play a corresponding role in the evaluation.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，171)

The second group of clients expect interpreters to go beyond "translation machines" and become helpers who can answer their own questions and facilitate communication. Such clients generally have little knowledge of the fields involved in the interpreting content, and the purpose of receiving interpreting of them is to understand a completely unfamiliar knowledge field and acquire as much new knowledge as possible.

In practice, most clients prefer the latter, which is also determined by the nature of liaison interpreting. One characteristic of liaison interpreters is that interpreters often act as "escorts" (Zhan Cheng 2010,3).

As an example, the author accompanied the "Confucius Institute" visiting group of South Korea's Wonkwang University during undergraduate years., for the purpose of cultural communication, the school asked the author with the delegation visit to cultural sites such as Hunan Provincial Museum, the author's main role in the trip is interpreter, but due to the particularity of interpreting theme, the author needs to explain the names of cultural relics and supplement relevant historical knowledge to the delegation members, so while interpreting, the author also plays the role of a tour guide.

====3.2.The Interpreter's Position on Themselves====
In the perspective of Foucault's power theory, the interpreter is no longer the traditional "transmitter", and the subject consciousness of the interpreter is highlighted. In the practice of interpreting, the interpreter's cognition of his/her status, ability and value is an important manifestation of the interpreter's subjectivity (Wang 2019,14). In liaison interpreting, as a person directly involved in communication and proficient in bilingualism, the liaison interpreter must have the advantage of adopting appropriate interpretation strategies according to power distribution in a communication. From the perspective of "translator-centered theory", liaison interpreters also have the obligation to adapt to different interpreting environments and coordinate the discourse of communication parties. Then the following situations usually occur:

In order to ensure the quality of their interpretation products and promote the progress of communication, liaison interpreters tend to go beyond the act of interpretation itself and make supplementary explanations of the content of interpretation that may cause communication barriers, either intentionally or unintentionally. Or when the interpretation content is of a strong national or national nature, liaison interpreters will inevitably have a tendency to protect the rights of their own country and nation and increase the discourse power of their own country and nation.

Of course, in general, interpreters will try their best to follow the principle of "faithfulness" in interpretation, and the ratio of "faithfulness" to "creativity" depends on the "choice" made by the liaison interpreter according to the translation environment.

====3.3.The Role of Interpreter under Different Liaison Interpreting Types====
"There is no absolute or unambiguous criterion for determining whether a method of interpreting is' good 'in all respects. Different types of interpreting activities have different target structures, different concerns, needs, expectations, and different levels of participation by all parties involved, which means that there are a variety of requirements for interpreters ".（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，172）

Therefore, the author believes that when discussing the role of the liaison interpreter, the role of the interpreter should be analyzed according to the different interpretation types. Next, the author intends to take business interpreting, guide-interpreting and legal interpreting as examples to analyze the roles of interpreters suitable for different interpreting type.

=====3.3.1.Business Interpreting=====
Business interpreting is different from other liaison interpreting. First, business interpreting usually takes place in the context of cooperative project negotiation. In communication, the monolingual speakers respectively represent the interests of their enterprises and, usually, the interests of the countries where the enterprises are located.Secondly, the communicative parties usually have the purpose of long-term cooperation. Third, the content of business interpreting usually contains a large number of professional terms and figures; Fourth, business interpreters are usually permanent employees of one side of the communication. Fifthly, advanced diction is usually used in business interpretation.

Due to the above characteristics of business interpreting, it is necessary for liaison interpreters to have the following accurate understanding of their role positioning.

First, business interpreters are channels to convey "meaning". This is the basic professionalism of an interpreter. Liaison interpreting is also known as bilateral interpretation. The existing bilateral interpretation model is based on the "tripartite communication" model. As one of the three parties, the liaison interpreter, like the Internet connecting two terminals, undertakes the task of processing the communication information between the two parties.

Second, business interpreters are debaters for the benefit of their clients. Because of the long-standing relationship between liaison interpreters and clients, clients tend to treat the interpreters they hire as their "inside" colleagues.In many business communication situations, clients represent the interests of their own enterprises and are in a fast-changing vanity fair, and the business interpreters employed by them, as bilingual and with certain knowledge of the business, are bound to be the target for clients to seek help.(Zhang Meng 2014，29)

Third, business interpreters are mediators of the negotiation atmosphere. In business negotiations, it is often the case that the two parties in communication fight for their own interests and the negotiation comes to a deadlock. Business interpreters have the obligation to use interpreting strategies and techniques to soften the atmosphere and act as a buffer when both sides are using increasingly extreme language and tone.

Fourth, a business interpreter is also a professional "business practitioner". Business interpreters are professional "business practitioners" who are the second most important role besides "interpreter". This is also based on the first point of the basic role of the interpreter positioning. Sometimes the two sides of communication have different professional terms for the same concept. In order to facilitate the smooth communication between the two sides, usually the interpreter needs to be familiar with the relevant terms and interpret them quickly and accurately. In other words, it requires not only a good command of a foreign language, but also a good knowledge of business.（Zhang Meng 2014，29）

=====3.3.2.Guide-interpreting=====
In addition to the business interpreting and legal interpreting mentioned by Pǎchhacker in the classification of interpreting, guide-interpreting is also distinguished from other liaison interpreting in that it has the most prominent intercultural characteristics and the emphasis of interpretation is on the inheritance of the culture reflected in the source language. In a sense, the role of a guide-interpreter is similar to that of a diplomat, who not only needs to make tourists understand the history and culture of China, but also needs to answer their questions accurately and timely. As a result, guide-interpreters should pay more attention when making role positioning.(Jia Zhiyong 2017，223/ Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,160-162)

First, guide-interpreters are facilitators of communication. In the tourism-themed interpreting work, the interpreter's duty is to help tourists and tour guides communicate, which is also the embodiment of the interpreter's "bridge" role in the field of tourism. So in some cases, it is necessary for an interpreter to supplement the source language, such as when a Chinese tour guide introduces a mountain to English-speaking tourists and says:

ex）“大家现在看到的山远看像一条卧龙，因此取名卧龙山。”
And then the interpreter can interpret this sentence as:

1）*"The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain."

2）"The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain. ‘Wolong’ means sleeping dragon."

Obviously, the first interpreting product does not convey the original intention of the tour guide to the tourists. The tour guide's original intention is to let the tourists know that the name of the mountain has something to do with its appearance. However, if the name of the mountain is transliterated directly without supplementary explanation, the tourists will still not understand the connection between the name of the mountain and its shape.

Second, tour interpreters are "cultural brokers". Besides interpreting the words of tour guides to tourists, interpreters should also properly explain some incomprehensible cultural phenomena to tourists. For example, a tour guide introduces the Palace Museum in Beijing to foreign tourists.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,161)

The Palace Museum in Beijing is a completely symmetrical building built along a central axis. The ancient Chinese, influenced by Confucianism, believed that a completely symmetrical building could foil the majesty of the emperor. If the interpreter only changes the language of the original when interpreting this sentence, it will not make the foreign tourists understand The Chinese Confucian culture correctly. Because the guide as well as Chinese tourists learn at an early age and contact with Confucianism, so the Chinese subconsciously has "symmetrical architecture", "Confucianism" and "Confucianism" link up without the need for further explanation, but as an interpreter should be aware that foreign tourists are likely to have no contact with Confucianism, also don't know "symmetrical architecture" and "Confucianism", so when the tour guide has no further explanation, the interpreter is necessary for additional instructions, play the role of a "cultural agent".

Third, guide-interpreters are the keepers of the atmosphere. The working scenes of guide-interpreters are informal, such as scenic spots and hotels, so the intonation and wording of interpreters should be in line with the current atmosphere. If the intonation is too plain and the wording is too serious, foreign tourists will find it difficult to adapt to it, and the interpreting products of interpreters will also "reject" the interpreting settings.

Fourth, guide-interpreters are "experts" in the tourism industry. Similar to a business interpreter, a guide-interpreter requires a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the relevant field, which is the basis for the interpreter to act as a "culture broker".

Fifthly, there is another special case in which a guide-interpreter may be both an interpreter and a tour guide. When the author was an undergraduate, the author acted as an interpreter for the "Confucius Institute" delegation of Wonkwang University in South Korea, mainly following them to various cultural tourist attractions. Since the author had been to relevant scenic spots for many times, the author acted as a dual role of "interpreter" and "tour guide" without employing professional guides.

=====3.3.3.Legal Interpreting=====
Legal interpreting refers to interpreting under legal settings, including judicial interpreting and quasi-judicial interpreting. Judicial interpreting refers to "interpreting under court settings", while quasi-judicial interpreting refers to interpreting taken place outside the court and closely related to court procedure (Zhao Junfeng，Dong Yan 2020,70).

In distinguishing between international and community settings, Pǎchhacker points out that court interpreting is "the most obvious binding setting for community interpreting". (Franz.Pǎchhacker, 2010,177) The author takes courtroom interpreting as an example for analysis. In court interpreting, the situation of interpretation is more serious than that of other types of interpreting, because of the rigor of the law, the interpreter should also be more precise in the wording and sentence construction. The roles of court interpreters are as follows:

First, an invisible interpreting machine. In most court interpreting, the restrictions imposed by the legal system on interpreters are often contrary to the standards advocated by the interpreting profession (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,178). In order to maintain the rigor of the law, court interpreters are required to be "invisible" and interpret word by word, so the nature of the law gives court interpreters a role positioning that distinguishes them from other types of interpreters -- "artificial intelligence interpreting machine" with high accuracy.

Second, conflict mediators. This role is due to the large power gap between legal practitioners such as judges and non-legal practitioners such as defendants and plaintiffs in the courtroom. In tense court debates, interpreters often act as conflict mediators in order to keep communication going.

Third, intercultural agents. In fact, it is not only guide-interpreting, there will be more or less cultural barriers in any intercultural communication, and court interpreting is no exception. There was a famous case in which a Chinese-grandmother who lived in the United States gave "刮痧" to her sick grandson. Her son-in-law mistakenly thought that she had abused the child, so she was brought to court. The grandmother argued in court that it was only "刮痧", and the interpreter made additional explanations and said："‘刮痧’is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy" in order to make the American judge understand "刮痧" , and the case was finally dismissed. This example well demonstrates the important role of interpreters as intercultural agents in court interpretation. (Du Mengmeng, Tan Jianying 2013,106-107)

Fourth, legal "experts". In order to ensure the accuracy of the interpreting and the accurate understanding of legal terms by the listener of the TL, interpreters usually need to master a large amount of legal knowledge and relevant vocabulary accurately, and be able to provide basic answers for the listener lacking legal knowledge when necessary.

To sum up, the role of an interpreter is generally related to the above three aspects. In other words, due to the limitations of client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge and setting, interpreters need to make "adaptive selection" and "selective adaptation" to different interpreting environments according to client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge. The role positioning of the interpreter affects the interpreting strategies that the interpreter chooses in the actual interpreting process, so the balance between "reception aesthetics" and "translator-centered theory" in different interpreting settings is of vital importance.

===4.Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Settings===
====4.1.The Influence and Application of Reception Aesthetics and "Translator-Centered Theory" on Interpreting Strategies====
As mentioned in the previous section, there are two main types of interpretation customers: those who expect faithful interpreting and those who expect supplementary interpreting. When interpreters fail to communicate with clients in advance and adjust their interpreting strategies according to clients' expectations, they will often produce interpreting products deviating from clients' needs, thus leading to errors in the transmission of interpreting information and resulting in interpreting barriers. The influence of such factors can be largely eliminated by preparation before interpreting.

In the pre-interpretation preparation stage, interpreters can understand the cultural background of clients in advance or directly communicate with clients to understand their needs. Only by integrating interpretation products with clients' expectations can they be regarded as successful interpreting products. However, in practical interpreting, interpreters also encounter another kind of difficulty, that is, clients have aesthetic expectations of interpreting products and expect interpreters to make detailed explanations of relevant information.

We know that the aesthetic value of an interpreting product derives from the "places of indeterminacy" of the product. Generally speaking, it is the space to appreciate an interpreting product, similar to the "blank space" in a Chinese painting. A balance should be struck between the degree of supplementary explanation and the degree of artistic "white space" in interpreting, which is difficult to grasp precisely because the clients who often make such requests do not have an accurate definition. In order to deal with this problem, interpreters have to make perceptual judgments based on their rich practical experience. Of course, it is not feasible to develop interpreting strategies based entirely on clients' expectations.

Lv Jun once put forward, "Every reader has different natural talent, endowment, experience and cultivation, so the works will present different meanings to each reader... If based on such a theory, how can we draw the conclusion of ‘principle of equivalence’?" This is also the paradox between reception aesthetics and Nida's ‘functional equivalence theory’" (Lv Jun 1997，51).

As interpreters are participants in intercultural communication, their own factors must have a great impact on the quality of interpreting. The author believes that the problem of interpreting obstacles caused by interpreters' own factors can be solved through the "translator-centered theory" in "Eco-translatology". The "translator-centered theory" requires interpreters to develop themselves, that is, interpreters should change their interpreting circumstances and improve their interpreting ability, so as to obtain freedom of choice to ensure their central position in interpreting activities.(Luo Dijiang 2019，219)

Interpreters can expand their power in interpreting activities by improving their interpreting ability and using interpreting techniques. According to Pǎchhacker, there are two ways to improve interpreting skills: personal qualities and professional skills. Personal quality includes biological individual function and psychological quality. Professional skills mainly refer to bilingual skills. First of all, how to improve personal quality and ability. Apart from the inherent intelligence factor, interpreters should actively improve their psychological quality, which is a necessary guarantee for the smooth progress of interpreting.（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,181）

In case of difficulties, interpreters should not be flustered, but should actively take various countermeasures to overcome or temporarily avoid the difficulties to ensure the quality of the overall interpreting products. Zhan Cheng suggested that interpreters could simplify this by seeking help from the speakers (Zhan Cheng 2010，153-154).

In addition, the author believes that the predicament of interpreting can also be solved by "imitation words"， which is a special kind of loanwords. Take Chinese-Korean interpreting for example. In the Hunan Provincial Museum, there is a collection called "纪念木牍", which is a piece of wood used for writing in ancient China to records the time of some events, a time when the interpreter didn't know its corresponding proper nouns, can according to its pronunciation rules imitate a word - "기년목독". Since both countries belong to the same cultural cycle of Chinese characters , Koreans learn basic Chinese characters from an early age, so they can understand the meaning and use of the imitated words even if they are not accurate.

There is also a case in French where the word science-fiction is directly interpreted into English. This is very useful for solving the sudden interpreting obstacles encountered in the process of interpreting.(Munday, J 2014, 80)

In terms of improving professional skills, before the beginning of interpreting, interpreters should have a systematic system of interpreting notes, which should be as concise as possible to improve the efficiency of interpreting symbols, and should be used to test the practicality of symbols in practice. Interpreters should also accumulate professional knowledge and vocabulary in various fields in daily life, and be familiar with the interpreting content and background knowledge before starting an interpreting.

At the end of the interpreting work, the interpreter should review the difficulties encountered in the interpreting activities and think positively about the solutions to avoid repeating the past mistakes. With the development and progress of science and technology, modern science and technology have been widely used in the field of interpreting. Using digital recording technology, the interpreters can replace the notes in the interpreting by simply using portable devices such as computers to attach the source words to the digital audio tape and then playing them through headphones (Franz. Pǎchhacker 2010, 186).

In addition, modern technology can also be used to build artificial intelligence corpus, which can be used to classify corpus according to different translation topics.

====4.2.Interpreting Strategies in Different Settings====
Whether it is business interpreting, guide-interpreting or legal interpreting, interpreters are faced with the choice of "faithfulness" and "creativity". However, different types of liaison interpreting have different "interpreting ecological environments". The author analyzed the interpreting strategies applicable to these three types of liaison interpreting respectively.

The clients of business interpreting have unclear requirements on interpreting products, which require interpreters not only to profit for the company but also to regulate the atmosphere, while the ecological environment of business interpreting requires interpreters to be both "faithful" and "creative". Therefore, the interpreter has to adjust the strategy according to the specific interpreting content at any time. When both sides of the communication are negotiating for benefits, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “faithfulness” rather than “creativity”; when the two sides are chatting, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “creativity” rather than “faithfulness”; and when the two sides enter into a deadlock, the interpreter should use the "creative" interpreting to ease the atmosphere.

In guide-interpreting, the interpreter's role as "cultural broker" and "atmosphere maker", clients are usually expect interpreters interpret products for their own pleasure, so in the interpreting process of the guide-interpreting, interpreters should be as creative as possible through omission or addition, lively tone and appropriate word choice to achieve clients' expectations. At the same time, interpreters should not completely rebel against the principle of "faithfulness" without regard to the content of the SL.

Although interpreters also play the role of intercultural agents in legal interpreting, their more important role is interpretation machine for legal provisions. The ecological environment of legal interpreting is in a highly tense and rigorous atmosphere, which requires interpreters to adapt to the rigorous atmosphere and try their best to interpret sentence by sentence.

===5.Conclusion===
In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory".

The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory". The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between "faithfulness" and "creativity".

We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of "faithfulness" and "creativity" according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the "creativity" of interpretation products on the basis of "faithfulness", so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret "word by word". Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content.

This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.In a word, interpreters should strike a balance between "faithfulness" and "creativity" by relying on their professional quality and customers' expectations, which is the only way to improve the quality of interpretation products.

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--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=Translation Appreciation=

==Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664 英语语言文学==

<center>袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi no.202020080664</center>

===Abstract===

''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in American literature. Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into Chinese, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times in China. The version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and the most influential one in China, and it is regarded as a classic translation. There have been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are relatively few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi's translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to translation studies of ''Walden'' and literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.

===Key words===

''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics

===题目===
从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本

===摘要===

《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。

===关键词===

《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学

===Introduction===

====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====
=====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====
''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise, powerful, simple and natural which represent a unique style among American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord, at there he cultivated his own land, ate food grown in his land and experienced a life that is simple and close to nature. Thoreau loved and appreciated nature and he immersed himself in nature. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment.

=====Introduction to ''Walden''=====
''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which records Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two years from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau's view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.
''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, this book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages.
Thoreau's own practices in reality and his works both reflected his ideal, that is returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by their families, works and various material needs, thus they lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.

====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====
=====Introduction to Xu Chi=====
Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription "Poetry expresses ambition", and he was known as "Contemporary Chinese Goethe" and "Father of Reportage". Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).

=====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====
In 1949, Xu translated ''Walden'' into Chinese called "华尔腾". However, his translation failed to elicit widespread attention. Because at that time, people all over China were immersed in the joy of gaining liberation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'' which promotes tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.

In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it "瓦尔登湖", which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu Chi's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu Chi's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden'' (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).
Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, could he have more resonance with the writers and their works and thus he could reproduce the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent.(Yao Junwei 2005, 146).

Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's work, did Xu Chi love this book so much and he decided to translate this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes did not have time to read it. Because this book was too difficult to understand, Xu Chi found that it seemed that this book was not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, later he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he felt it quite interesting. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the night became quiet, the book became not so obscure and he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).

''Walden'' is Xu Chi's most successful translation. He translated it first in 1949, then again in 1982 and finally in 1996. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'' in recent years, but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translation of ''Walden''. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference , which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation (Wang Zhao 2009, 147).

====Style and Styllistics====
=====Style=====
Originated from Latin or Greek word "stile" or "stilus", "style" originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 374).
Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of "figures" that conform to his or her mode of discourse (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 375).

For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.

One of the most successful attempts to define "style" in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short's definition. They offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:
(a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language.
(b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text).
(c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function.
(d) Stylistic choices is limited to those aspects of linguistic choices which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter. (Leech and Short 1981)

Another example is Nida Eugene's definition. He pointed out that translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. So in translation of literary works, the author's style should be represented through the translator's style, and the translator's style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers'styles and yet has its own unique translation style (Nida Eugene 1982, 12).

The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of linguistic style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-linguistic style include the author's emotion, the author's imagination and the author's intelligence. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of linguistic style. (Lv Jun & Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).

In conclude, translation, especially literary translation as an cross-cultural process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.

=====Styllistics=====
Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms. It is an interdisciplinary subject, which is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines. Its object of study is the style of language.

It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 376).

=====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====
''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Thoreau'language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized as plain, natural, concise, powerful, and unique. ''Walden'' is also a book which aims directly at the reader. Anyone who reads this book will feel like they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. However, this book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Because ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: rich vocabulary, complex syntax and various rhetorical devices (Zhang Jianguo 2005, 107).

So it is helpful for translators to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand Thoreau' stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his language style in the target language.

===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===
====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====
=====Degree of Formality=====
In ''Walden'', Thoreau used concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, Thoreau's choice of words suggests that general style of ''Walden'' is not that formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation.

First, let us see a example of translation of nouns in Xu Chi's version.
Example 1：
…；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)
Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)

As can be seen from the above, "washing" in Xu Chi's translation is understood as "洗瀣物". "washing" is a common word English-speaking people use in their daily lives. However, "瀣" is not a word Chinese people encounter very often in their daily conversations. Although the word "洗瀣物" reproduced the content of "washing" but it can not reflect the degree of formality of the original word. Thus it fail to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．

Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. So let us look at a example of it.
Example 2：
Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)
Xu Chi's Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有冻馁之忧。(徐迟 2009, 83)

In original text, the first adjective "poor" is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered "cold and hungry" into a four-character noun phrase "冻馁之忧" which means which appears uncoordinated with three adjectives "邋遢", "褴褛" and "粗野" being placed before the noun phrase "冻馁之忧". What is more, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.

Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the following analysis.
Example 3：
I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house, and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill, in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)
Xu Chi's Translation：
我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)

As we can see from the example, these verbs in the original text are concise and they are common in our daily speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word "see" into "考察" which sounds serious and formal, because "考察" means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as "考察人" or "考察情况". So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.

=====Expressive Meaning=====
The lexical meaning of a word or lexical unit may be thought of as the specific value it has in a particular linguistic system. But it is rarely possible to analyze a word, pattern or structure into distinct components of meaning; Nevertheless, it is sometimes useful to play down the complexities of language temporarily in order to appreciate them and to be able to handle them better in the long run (Zgusta 1971, 67).

Roman Jakobson coined the term expressive or emotive as one of the functions of language. He described it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], which aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about and gives interjections as the prime example of this function (Jakobson 1960, 354).

It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness. Here is a exampe.
Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)
Xu Chi's Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子从大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)

According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, "sweeping" is the act of a sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.) in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of "flood tides", "westerly winds" and "ice" was destructive and therefore it is clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word "sweep" here reflects the speaker's negative attitude towards the possible outcome. Obviously, the word "冲掉" in Xu Chi's translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker's attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and ice. Xu ignored the author's emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause and thus he did not produce equivalence of "sweep".

====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====
Raffel (1994) points out that "the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said." So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should not be ignored.

In the original text, there are many short sentences with neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structures in translation and he adopted the method of literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text. Since both Chinese and English are discourse systems, literal translation can be a good way to deal with them.
Example 5:
It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137)
Xu Chi’s Translation:
这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)

This paragraph has a neat structure and neat antithesis, and it has pleasing and harmonious rhythm. The original text is composed of ten verses. Xu Chi retained the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value. And he paid attention to the rhythm of the original text and retained it in his translation, which makes his translation closer to the original text.

====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====
=====Metaphor=====
According to the Webster dictionary, "metaphor" means a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in drowning in money).
Example 6:
Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012, 7)
Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。 (徐迟 2009, 6）

The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are "public opinion" and "weak tyrant". There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason:"compared to our own private opinions". People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is slightly weak. The use of metaphor here shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly, expressing the meaning of the original text.

=====Pun=====
Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meanings in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) pointed out that "pun translation is unimportant but fascinating".

The use of puns in ''Walden'' is remarkable. The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two layers of meaning in a word, a phrase or a sentence, they are often used as a link between the preceding text and following text. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence of the text and its rhetorical and aesthetic effects.

Example 7：
If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)
Xu Chi's Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，—那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)

This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that "Walden" might come from "Walled-in". "Walled-in Pond", as a homophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu Chi wisely translated it as "围而得", retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the similar meaning. "围而得" maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph. It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.

=====Personification=====
Personification refers to the practice of representing objects, qualities as a human being in art and literature. People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things as human beings in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In ''Walden'', many natural objects, ranging from the lake to little ants are personified. There is a example below.

Example 8：
This further experience also I gained：I said to myself, I will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer, but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil, even with less toil and manurance, and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)
Xu Chi's Translation:
我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)

Thoreau shares his experience of growing beans and his plan for next summer with readers here. As we know, words like "sincerity", "truth", "simplicity", "faith" and "innocence" usually refer to qualities of humans. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds. Xu Chi reproduced the rhetorical feature of the original text very well.

===Conclusion===
The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary with complex and diverse sentence structure and the use of various rhetoric devices makes the translation work more difficult. To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need and linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also found that sentences in Xu Chi's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 12:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Leech.G.N. & M. H. Short. (1981). ''Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Newmark P. (2001). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.

Nida Eugene. (1982). ''Translating Meaning''. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.

Raffe. (1994). ''The Art of Translating Prose''. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．

Roman Jaobson. (1960). ''“Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language''. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Thoreau Henry David. (2012). ''Walden''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, INC.

Hu Zhuanglin 胡壮麟. （2015). 语言学高级教程 [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. Beijing：Peking University Press

Lv Jun & Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.

Wu Siying & Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. ''湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.

Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Yao Junwei 姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. ''外国文学研究'' [Study of Foreign Literature] 4 145-149.

Zhang Jianguo 张建国. (2005). 梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的语言风格探析 [Analysis on language Style of Walden By Thoreau]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报'' [Journal of Henan Commercial College] 03 106-107.

==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling MTI 英语笔译==

<center>王美玲 Wang Meiling</center>

===Abstract===

The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.

===Key words===

Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;

===摘要===

文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。

===关键词===

文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；

===1.Introduction===

The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice."First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas."（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）

Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?

===2.Brief Comments on Translation Thoughts in the Period of Renaissance===

Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. "In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist." Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68）

Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the "Chief Translator" of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.（Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）

Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of "trying to be comparable to the original work", and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a "feeling of beauty". （Tan Zaixi，2004：68-69）

The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre.(Tan Zaixi，2004：76-77）

From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance.Liu Junping said: "In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. "（liu Junping,2009:76）

Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. "The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers." (Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）

This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.

In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language.(Tan Zaixi，2004：83）

Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.(Tan Zaixi，2004：64）

===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===

====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====

Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as "the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century". Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.(Liu Hongyan,2010:1）

Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the "first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.(Tan Zaixi，2004：68）

====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====

=====3.2.1 Lu Xun's "Foreignization"=====

Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of "Foreignization" , which preserved the "exoticism". Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of "Foreignization" could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, "Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution."（Chen Fukang,2000;286）

With regard to his translation concept of "Foreignization", he had such remarks :

“还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)

From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to "conveying feelings" and "improving education", and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.

=====3.2.2 Luther's "Domesticization"=====

In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that " Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German."
In the ''A Short History of Translation in the West'', Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)

"Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise."

Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of "naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.

====3.3 Conclusion====

Lu Xun's translation principle of "Foreignization", which preserved "exoticism", satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.

Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.

Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.(Liu Hongyan，2010:2）

===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===

Engels praised Luther:"Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century." (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.

'''Example one '''

“You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”

“The translator can change the word order of the original text”

“严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）

Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of "拉开" can only be issued by human beings, and the "心幕" is not a physical object which cannot be "pulled open". In the process of translation, we find that the action of "拉开" does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of "拉开" and "心幕" is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb "拉开", which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose"涌出" as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb "unveil". Naturally, the phrase "五年前的一个印象" becomes the subject. scene of five years ago", and the word "before" was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation "A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye." It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to "The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the "心幕" and the "印象" is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of "faithfulness", meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.

'''Example Two'''

“The necessary conjunctions can be added.”

“作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）

After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences.(Zhang Sijie,Zhang Bairan,1998:54)

Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.

'''Example Three'''

The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”

“不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）

Translators find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word "奋斗" may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to "奋斗", the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be "struggle", "fight", and "strive", one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is "raising flowers", which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the "奋斗" of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word "struggle" by using such phrases as "weather through", "carry on the struggle for existence" to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.

'''Example Four'''

“Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”

In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, "One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him."（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.

Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.

===5.Conclusion ===

In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.(Tan Zaixi，2004：67）

After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's ''A Short History of Translation in the West'' and Chen Fukang's ''A History of Translation Theory in China'', the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.

As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by more practice.

===6.References===

[1]Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.

[2]Chen Fukang 陈福康.(2000).中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China].

[3]Liu Hongyan 刘红岩.(2010). 鲁迅与马丁·路德翻译思想对比研究 [A Comparative Study of Lu Xun's and Martin Luther's translation Thoughts]

[4]Liu Junping 刘军平.(2009).西方翻译理论通史[A General History of Western Translation Theory]

[5]Lu Xun 鲁迅.(1935).鲁迅全集.[The Complete Works of LU Xun]

[6]Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史.[A Short History of Translation in the West]

[7]Zhang Sijie, Zhang Bairan 张思洁,张柏然.(1998).意合与形合.[Parataxis and Hypotaxis]

==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638 英语口译==

<center>康浩宇 Kang Haoyu</center>

===Abstract===

In interpreting, interpreter's memory plays an important role, and the level of the memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. How interpreter's memory ability works is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of "memory", appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretating, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper explores the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretating industry from the principle of memory.

===Keywords===

Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting

===摘要===

在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。译者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。

===关键词===

记忆；翻译记忆；口译

===1 Introduction===

'''1.1 Background'''

Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a part of interpreter's competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognizes and keeps the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decodes the information into the target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019).

With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective ways for translation. In CAT, there is a tool called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness in this aspect(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).

'''1.2 Significance of the Study'''

There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have a better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address their problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on the memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism and effects(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it refers to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improves the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory application in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

'''1.3 Structure of the Study'''

This thesis will be developed in five chapters.
Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.
Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.
Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.
Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.
The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.

===2 Study on Memory===

'''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''

Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things in the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience of human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus of the brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and it is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).

'''2.2. Memory Systems'''

Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''

As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity has more than 9 chunks while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about 5 chunks. The "chunks" here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be further processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''

Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short term memory will be transferred to long term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which stores information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappearance of short term memory is often due to the interruption.

'''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''

Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for a long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.

'''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''

Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters' listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).

'''2.3.1 Memorizing'''

Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).

According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).Unconscious memorization refers to the memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).

Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes "what to remember" and "how to remember". "What to memorize" determines the direction and content of memorization, and "how to memorize" is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However,as for memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).

'''2.3.2 Keeping'''

Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the "image" in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26).

Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

'''2.3.3 Recalling'''

The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of the intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In the aspect of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).

'''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''

Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).

'''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''

The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).

'''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''

Recency effect, also put forward by an American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).

Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).

Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).

===3 Memory in Interpreting===

In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of the original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''

When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of the internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).

Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).

Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).

'''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''

In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the "Deverbalization Mode" theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).

"Deverbalization Mode" theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41).

In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).

Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of the input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of "semantic retrieval", identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

'''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''

'''3.3.1 Logical Memory'''

Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of "recalling" and "interpreting". In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for the interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

'''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''

Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of the information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.

“同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)

The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.

“Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”

From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

'''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''

In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity has only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).

There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.

“环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)

And the official translation is given as followed.

“Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”

In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).

===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===

'''4.1 Translation Memory'''

With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).

'''4.1.1 Definition'''

Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more "smart" and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).

'''4.1.2 Mechanism'''

The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).

Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful when translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)

'''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''

'''4.2.1 Current Situation '''

Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

The first stage is the pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. On the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

'''4.2.2 Limitations'''

Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of the limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.

As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).

As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).

===5 Conclusion===

A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.

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== The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan 202070080609 英语笔译==

=== Abstract ===
Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention.
The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation.

=== Keywords ===

Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation

=== 摘要 ===

人类已经进入多媒体时代，语言作为一种单一的模态形式已经无法充分表达交际的意义。因此，我们还需要一些其他的情态手段加以加强，以充分表达意义，达到交际的目的，如声音、视觉形象、色彩等。因此，多模态一词引起了语言学家的兴趣和关注。
本文以多模态话语分析理论为基础，旨在在多模态话语分析理论框架下分析以下三个方面：1。多模态在电影《本杰明·巴顿》中的体现，则旨在分析在多模态话语分析的理论框架下，字幕和多模态如何结合起来构建整体意义。第二个目标是讨论电影字幕与其他情态动词的关系，以及不同情态动词之间的关系。三。通过对电影字幕在翻译过程中的整体意义的分析，本文试图对电影字幕翻译提出一些建议。

=== 关键词 ===

多模态语篇分析；视听产品；字幕翻译

=== Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===

''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''

At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language.
Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years.
In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples.

However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis.
In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress & Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress & Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress & Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use.

In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.

''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''

Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level

''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''

Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called "complementary relationship", while the other is called non-complementary relationship.

Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.

=== Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===

''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''

With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as "a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts". (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s.
Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. "Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation." (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)

''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''

Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics:
Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect.

Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities.
Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.
Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed.
Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.

''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''

''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''

It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.

''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''

The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.

''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''

As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film.
There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

=== Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of "Benjamin Button" From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===

''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamin Button' '''

'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.
The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.

''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''

''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''

Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that "the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible". In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.
The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of "rejuvenate" is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.
In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.

When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”
The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)
There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”
The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26任总统)”
In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, "Mr. cake" suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called "Teddy Roosevelt" will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means "cake" in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of "Teddy".

''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''

In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.
When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.”

Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.
When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase "sweep you off your feet" means "to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you"（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to "fall in love" with her but "I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly"(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.

''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''

The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.
“Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of "well" does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.
“You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。”

As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.
For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:
Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)
Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)
The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.

''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''

Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.

Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.
Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: "he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.". (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.

=== Chapter Four Conclusion ===

The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of "rejuvenation" as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.

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==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company 陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 202070080582 MTI 英语笔译==

<center>陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 202070080582 MTI 英语笔译</center>

===Abstract===

Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and enjoys a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of "The Belt and Road Initiative" and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in the international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers.

As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, many problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions.

According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation involves language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between the source language and the target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, tring to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions.

===Key words===

Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation; Adaptation Theory; Yulin Pharmaceutical Company

===摘要===

中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。

药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。

比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。

===关键词===

中医药品说明书翻译；顺应论；玉林制药公司

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background of the Study====

As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since "The Belt and Road Initiative" proposed for the first time, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. (Ou Xiufang, 2020)

As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaging in R&D, production and sales of TCM. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumers' safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. The quality translation of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. (Ou Xiufang, 2020)

====1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study====

It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence the necessity to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive way and to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. (Cao Qing, 2011)

Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, who thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between the source language and the target language. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications, and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among the foreign medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

===2. Features of TCM Instructions===

Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers' safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications because the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

What's more, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derive from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times. The peculiar traits of TCM language, and the technical terms, directly or indirectly, come from the abstract medical concepts of TCM. The classical style or semi-classical style used in ancient times remains. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn't been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language in Chinese can find no equivalence in English, hence the difficulty in translating them into English. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

===3. Introduction of Adaptation Theory===

Adaptation Theory was firstly proposed in 1987 by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, the secretary general of International Pragmatics Association. And then it has been developed and modified for several times over years, attracting a lot of attention in the linguistics community with its integrated system and solid philosophical foundation. In the book, ''Understanding Pragmatics'', Verschueren describes that "language use must consist of the continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, for language-internal and/or language-external reasons." (Verschueren, 2000)

In other words, when making linguistic choices, language users are influenced by the internal structure of language and the external factors. Verschueren attaches great importance to the adaptation of linguistic structures and contexts, and takes communication as a conscious language choice-making process and dynamic adaptability. The essence of communication and expression is a dynamic process, and the context will change along with communication, thus, language forms and strategies should be taken into consideration so as to comply with the context and achieve effective communication. (Verschueren, 2000)

====3.1 Three Properties of Language====

According to Verschueren, there are three properties in language: variability, negotiability and adaptability, and it is the reason why we can make choices during language usage. "These three properties are inseparable with one another, variability and negotiability being the foundation, the ultimate purpose and core is adaptability." (Verschueren, 2000)

Variability provides a large number of linguistic choices during the process of language usage, and lays a basic foundation for the realization of negotiability and adaptability. Negotiability means language users will go through negotiation with themselves when choosing the most appropriate forms and strategies so as to make adaptation and fulfil the communicative intention. As the core of language property, adaptability enables language users to make linguistic choices provided by variability, and then negotiate to decide which choice to be made in accordance with different language contexts. (Verschueren, 2000)

As mentioned above, these three properties are inseparable with one another. Variability and negotiability make it possible and available for language users to choose the proper form and strategy of a language when making adaptation to a specific language context. (Verschueren, 2000)

====3.2 Four Aspects of Investigation====

Based on the guidance of Adaptation Theory, Verschueren advocates four aspects of investigation in linguistic research, namely, contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability, dynamics of adaptability and salience of adaptation process. (Verschueren, 2000)

Contextual correlates of adaptability "potentially includes all the ingredients of the communicative context with which linguistic choices have to be inter-adaptable." These ingredients include language users, the physical world, the social world (such as social relations, culture, social status and social settings), and the mental world (personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations or intentions, etc.). Since it entails the objective and subjective factors and both sides of language users (utterer and interpreter), making adaptation to the context is of great significance. (Verschueren, 2000)

Structural objects of adaptability happens at all levels of the linguistic structures, ranging from codes and styles, words and clauses, to sentences and prepositional structures. In order to adapt to different cultures and linguistic structures, language users need to choose the most appropriate structure so as to build up the logical relationship and improve the readability and credibility in target language. (Verschueren, 2000)

Dynamics of adaptability means "the development of adaptability processes over time." It is created by the changes and development of language contexts and structures over time. And different words and translation strategies adopted in different contexts show the dynamic adaptability in language use. (Verschueren, 2000)

Salience of adaptation process refers to the various degree of consciousness in the process of making choices. The continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, covers exactly different levels of salience. (Verschueren, 2000)

In conclusion, as the indispensable parts in linguistic analysis, the four aspects of investigation are the necessary factors to explain and describe any given linguistic phenomenon.

===4. Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company===

From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, therefore, the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, there are some instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the Company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)

====4.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====

As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and the social world due to the limited materials collected. (Verschueren, 2000)

=====4.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World=====

Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers' mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. (Verschueren, 2000)

Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, which gives a sense of authority and credibility. (Ma Bangxin, 1998)

To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. "正骨水" is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, "Zheng Gu Shui", which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn't the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, "Bone-setting Liquor" would be a better name for the medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

"Bone-setting" means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and "liquor" implies alcohol and other irritating ingredients of the medicine. Consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds when seeing its name. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, "金装正骨水" can be translated to "Golden Bone-setting Liquor", and "极品正骨水" is rendered as "Superb Bone-setting Liquor". Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Another example, "睡安胶囊", the translation is "Shui'an Jiaonang". Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don't recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use "capsule" to indicate the type of this medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

A well-recognized name will arouse the attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang Lifeng advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. "Sleep Mate" or "Insomnia Killer" can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, "mate" is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such a combination, and "killer" combined with "insomnia" implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

=====4.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World=====

According to Verschueren, there is no principle limit to the range of social factors because linguistic choices are inter-adaptable. Basically, social settings and cultures play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point: (Zhou Shumei, 2013)

Example 1 (感冒止咳露)

Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛

Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia

Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles

Traditionally, "伤风" in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of "风" into the human body. "风" is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, "风" or "火", will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, "angina" and "melalgia" might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Besides, "nasal congestion" is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. The revised text, therefore, adopts "snuffle" and "sore throat" to indicate the meaning of "鼻塞" and "咽痛". The same goes to "肢痛", using "pain in muscles" to replace the word of "melalgia", hence the adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)

ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛

TT: Used for children's wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm

RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children

Similarly, example 2 also translates "伤风" into "wind damage", which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes "wind damage" and "exuberant phlegm", adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Literal translation is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers' social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible. (Nigel Wiseman, 2000)

====4.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn====

According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind. As indicated before, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the Company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)

=====4.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level=====

Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company: (Tang Xun, 2014)

Example 3 (蛤蚧补肾丸)

ST: 小便频数

TT: Frequent urination

Example 4 (金装正骨水)

ST: 祛风除湿

TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness

RT: Relieve rheumatic pain

Example 5 (珍黄丸)

ST: 消肿止痛

TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain

RT: Relieve swelling pain

Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. "祛风除湿" is a typical example. "风湿" is a disease caused by the invasion of "风" into the human body. If "风邪" cannot be removed from the body soon, "湿" will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, "祛风" is actually the result of "除湿", and vice versa. "消肿止痛" means that the pain is caused by swelling. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

In example 3, "小便频数" is translated into "Frequent urination", the structure of "adjective + noun" in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. Accordingly, the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into "Relieve rheumatic pain" and "Relieve swelling pain", not only implying the causal relationship in TCM language, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Example 6 (感冒止咳露)

ST: 止咳化痰

TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm

RT: Relieve cough and sputum

Example 7 (乌军治胆片)

ST: 疏肝解郁

TT: To course the liver and resolve depression

RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver

In the above two examples, "止咳化痰" is translated into "Suppress cough and transform phlegm". It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn't work well, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context and translate in isolation. "化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, hence the key words being "咳" and "痰", not the verbs. So the translation of "Relieve cough and sputum" would be more comprehensible and readable. (Nigel Wiseman, 2000)

And the example of "疏肝解郁" is actually another one that can be shown the casual relationship in TCM language. "疏" and "解" deliver the same meaning in such context, and "肝郁" is not the meaning of "depression of liver", but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract "Qi" in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into "Relieve Qi stagnation in liver" retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

=====4.2.2 Summary=====

Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation and make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English. (Verschueren, 2000)

From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the Company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level. It is found that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity. (Verschueren, 2000)

With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in the target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

====4.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====

As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren "...strategies are always involved in any type of communication." It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. (Verschueren, 2000)

The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the Company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 8 (正骨水)

ST: 舒筋活络

TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture

Example 9 (金装正骨水)

ST: 舒筋活络

TT: To relax and activate tendons

As for the translation of "舒筋活络", example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using "tendons" to express the meaning of "筋络". (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Besides the different specifications of "正骨水" and "金装正骨水", the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 10 (金装正骨水)

ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力

TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells

Example 11 (筋骨王)

ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。

TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells

Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of "增强" can be expressed by "improve" and "increase", and translators employs "partial" and "local" to express the meaning of "局部". As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 12 (睡安胶囊)

ST: 清心除烦

TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation

Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)

ST: 壮阳益肾

TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney

Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. "清心除烦" is rendered into "To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation", and "To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney" is more like the paraphrase of "壮阳益肾". Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers' mind in a better way. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people in these examples, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between thd source language and the target language. According to Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. (Verschueren, 2000)

As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

===Conclusion===

Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of "The Belt and Road Initiative", TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. (Verschueren, 2000)

Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn't deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

While at the same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and acceptable by target cultures and consumers. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. (Zhou Shumei, 2013)

The author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners. And free translation and domestication should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.

===References===

Nigel Wiseman. (2000). Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach. University of Exeter.

Verschueren J. (1987). Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation. International Pragmatic Association.

Verschueren J. (2000). ''Understanding Pragmatics''. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. (2018). 玉林制药公司 http://www.chinayulin.com/

Cao Qing 曹情. (2011). ''中文药品说明书的翻译'' [Translation of Chinese Drug Instructions]. Hunan: University of South China 南华大学.

Ma Bangxin 马邦新. (1998). 英文药品说明书的翻译 [Translation of English Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' [Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal] (3)16-18.

Ou Xiufang 欧秀芳. (2020). ''“一带一路”背景下中药贸易研究现状分析'' [Analysis on the Business Studies of Traditional Chinese Medicine under the Background of the Belt and Road Initiative]. Gansu: Gansu University Of Chinese Medicine 甘肃中医药大学.

Ouyang Lifeng 欧阳利锋. (2002). 中医药说明书的英译 [English Translation of TCM instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' [Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal] (2)17-20.

Tang Xun 唐勋. (2014). ''基于目的论的中医药说明书翻译'' [Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions Based on the Skopos Theory]. Hunan: Central South University 中南大学.

Xiao Qiong 肖琼. (2008). ''中医药说明书的翻译'' [Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. Guangdong: Guangdong University of Foreign Studies 广东外语外贸大学.

Yuan Binye 袁斌业. (2009). 语言顺应论对翻译的启示 [Enlightenment of Linguistic Adaptation Theory on Translation]. ''四川外国语学院院报'' [Journal of Sichuan International Studies University] (9)111-113.

Zhou Shumei 周书梅. (2013). 顺应论视角下的翻译研究 [Translation Studies from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory]. ''山东省农业管理干部学院学报'' [Journal of Shandong Agricultural Engineering College] 30(5)138-140.

--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 03:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=Machine Translation=
==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==
<center>莫玲 Mo Ling </center>

===Abstract===

Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also prospered in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of "1 + 1 > 2". This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.

===Key Words===

Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility

===题目===

机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？

===摘要===

科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。

===关键词===

人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合

===Introduction===

In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology.(He Liutao 2018,17)

Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on human to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique.(Liang Jie 2020,18)

Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” Toward this doubt, The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)

Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.

===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===

====2.1 Human Translation====

=====2.1.1 The Advantages =====

As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges.Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them have an encyclopedic knowledge. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

Thirdly, people have a capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

=====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====

However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result it causes a repetition of the same work they have done before.It is shown from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)

Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)

====2.2 Machine Translation====

=====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====

In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimum choice for many people.（Zhu Chaowei 2018,102）

Besides the adoption in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. "Translation headset" is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. "After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network)," said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. " Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).

With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has developed a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,21)

=====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====

Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation.(Liang Jie 2020,17)In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:

江雪

唐柳宗元

千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。

孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。

'''Version of Baidu Translation'''

River Snow

Birds flying away,

The trail of thousands of people;

A lone boat with a straw hat,

Fishing alone in cold river snow.

'''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''

Fishing in snow(Xu Yuanchong,2000)

From hill to hill no bird in flight,

From path to path no man in sight;

A lonely fisherman afloat

Is fishing snow in lonely boat.

Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty described in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may be puzzled about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)

Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meanings of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.

Example:

When Zhang San is sending money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please pay attention to the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,22)

领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)

张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)

领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)

张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)

领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)

张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)

领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)

Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology is always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

====3. Computer-Aided Translation====

To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to a half-automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====

=====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====

Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a "language database storing the original text and its translation". During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT is also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation.(Chen Yi 2018,31)

The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also produce corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).

=====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====

After stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator,it is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.(Chen Yi 2018,31)

Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation.(Global Encyclopedia)

Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).

=====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====

After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the number of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofreading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).

====3.2 Current Situation====

Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before.(Hua Fuwei 2015.8.5,Douban)

However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only store hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge an idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want.(He Liutao 2018,18)

Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, and thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person.(Yao Li 2020,202)

====3.3 Prospect====

Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation softwares. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)

===4. Suggestions===

Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the unstoppable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. There is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,108)

In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly pursued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”.(Qiu Cui, Chen Xue 2012,8)

At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperors, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick.(Qiu Cui & Chen Xue 2012,8)

In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the outbreaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they had lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts were intensified. Finally, the Revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down.(Qiu Cui,Chen Xue 2012,8-9)

Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this technology is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.(Liang Jie 2020,18）

In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. Similarly Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the deficiency of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are "985" universities and "211" universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pays much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period, most of our courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to CAT courses.(Lv Lisong & Mu Lei 2007,37)

This may resulted from the lack of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourages the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more teachers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has opened a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106-108)

===5. Conclusion===

Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

Human beings are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind is familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

While the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165).

In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth.

At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the computer-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

===References===

Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.

Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation "Fishing in Snow"] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.

He Liutao. 何刘涛.(2018) 人工智能背景下计算机辅助翻译在中国发展的思考[On the Development of Computer-aided Translation in China Under the Background of Artificial Intelligence] 英语广场[English Square], 17.

计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.

Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.

Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong. 罗华珍,潘正芹,易永忠. (2017) 人工智能翻译的发展现状与前景分析[Analysis of the Development and Prospect of Artificial Intelligence Translation] 电子世界[Electronics World], 21.

Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.

Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.

计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.

Qiu Cui,Chen Xue. 仇萃, 陈雪. (2012) 浅析中国的闭关锁国政策[On China's closed door policy] 现代物业[Modern property Management],8.

Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.

Xu Yuanchong. 许渊冲. (2000) 唐诗三百首[Translation of Three Hundred Tang Poems].

Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.

Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 102-108.

==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi MTI 英语笔译==

'''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''

英语笔译袁天翼

摘要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。

关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略

'''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

'''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation.

'''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies

'''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

'''I. Introduction'''

"The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English." (Reiss 2004,12).

"As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture".（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live.

'''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''

Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. "Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities."（Yang Yang 2020, 34）

Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? "Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)

Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.

Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”.

Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”.

Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”.

Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. "

Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, "Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs."

However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.

"In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation ."(Lv Hefa 2005,38)

“The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements in thirteen service fields. "Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication."(Wang Xunian 2020,69)

To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. "Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication ".(Pinkham John 2000, 156)

'''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''

'''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''

To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. "There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs."(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)

[[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&fm=27&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake.

Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.

A public sign in the Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads "Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor". More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake.

Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc.

No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads "The rockery danger, pleases no climb", whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”

First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, and this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it.

3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation

Knowing a little about English, and beginning to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate."Some common mistakes in public signs translation in daily life have brought a very bad impact on the image of the city; What's more, it will affect China's international image."(Zheng Yuguo 2020,138)

On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. "To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese."(Pang Yan 2020, 34)

No.4, this is a sign hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads "out of the cup area". It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine.

As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate.

Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that, a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!All those will bring big and standing jokes.

No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads" tourists get off area". Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run.

Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads "up the mountain". The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management.

No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads "more China, more fashion". At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”.

Once foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?

'''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''

It is just the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. "Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning."(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)

[[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8
[https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]

No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error.

[[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”.

[[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10
[https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public
sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve.

As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong.

Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”.

3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information

Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes."Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world."(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)

No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads " carefully hot". Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected.

[[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&fm=27&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean?

I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay.

[[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13
[https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch
your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners.

Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay.

Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”.

From so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. "As an important part of the translation industry, the translation of public signs has high academic value and research value."(Qian Zheng 2020, 191)

At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. "Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics."(Liu Hui 2020, 43)

IV. Public Sign Translation Methods

There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, "the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds.

'''4. 1 Amplification'''

Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. "Public signs, as an important window for the external publicity of the city image, are increasingly valued in their English translation status"(Fu Li 2020, 123)

For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. "Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis."(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)

'''4. 2 Ellipsis'''

To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”.

'''4. 3 Re-translation'''

Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”.

'''4. 4 Backward Translation'''

Here are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”.
The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. "

'''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''

"Theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. "(He Xueyun 2006,57)

When doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. "To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image."(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)

'''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''

The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error.

“This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing.

One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes
“Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”

'''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''

One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning.

The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity.

'''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''

When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples.

“Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake.

'''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''

As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth.
For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail.

Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added.

'''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. "In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs."(Ding Ying 2020,78)

High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. "Public signs are the most common practical language in people's lives."(Gu Zhe 2020, 102)

At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. "Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation."(Li Jing 2020, 229)

High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China."The translation error of public signs is mainly due to the translator's lack of adequate understanding of the linguistic and cultural framework of English."(Guan Chen 2020, 79)

Internally, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. "It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image" .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)

In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. "The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs."(Song Yanbei 2020,64)

"The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication". (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go.

There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. "Only when the relevant departments attach great importance to public signs and the people cooperate closely, the translation of public signs can be solved and improved."(Li Huiwen 2020, 23)

'''VII. Conclusion'''

So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. "Whether there are standards and norms for translating public signs into English in public places has a direct impact on foreign friends' impression of a city, which directly reflects the degree of internationalization of the city."(Song Yanbei 2020 ,61)

Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. "It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures". (Liu Xiaoping, 2019)

A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream.

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20201228 trans

2020-12-28T06:14:05Z

Hu Jin: /* Hu Jin 胡瑾 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

不同的视角范围在国际上的文章体裁。体裁主要是通过对文学的学术研究，对文学进行专门的沉思，为了能够更容易地比较同类文本而进行的划分。另一方面，像郑明立对文章那样，以众多小实体进行细分，则是对这种细分的意义提出质疑，以参考解释学的研究成果。我们还必须时刻注意文学本身的变化和科学观点的相对性，即使其在国际上被接受，也是适时的。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:14, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?

周作人在他的文学小品中，试图将日常生活中的小事从私人空间的主观体验中审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，他以号召写短篇文艺作品（《美文》1921），开创了中国散文写作的转折点。

在外国文学中，有所谓''lunwen''论文，大致分为两类：反映的，管批评的，是科学文章。其他的是''jishu''记述（描述性）和''yishuxing''艺术性，它们也被称为''meiwen''美文。在这些文章中，我们可以区分''xushi''敘事和''shuqing''抒情。但也有混杂的文字。[......]我希望美学文章受到鼓励，能够回来，为《新文学》开辟一个新的领域。那岂不妙哉？

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

- 中国社会的去意识形态化。如今在最前列的不是政府要求的平权文，而是非政治性的文章，大多是民国时期的文章，特别是1923年至1928年的。上述统计分析的结果也支持这一观点。1949年以后的政论文多为批评性散文。

- 关于散文集的编纂：对于中华人民共和国、台湾和香港最常被选中的文集来说，道德和审美标准似乎是其基础。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力。如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9展望'''

我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201221 cult

2020-12-28T06:01:31Z

Hu Jin: /* Hu Jin 胡瑾 */

==Alsied, Saffana==
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。

3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West.

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便建立现代国防。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。

The traditional Silk Road starts in Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea via the Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Syria, ending in Rome, a total length of 6,440 kilometres.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing dynasties, making it the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.此时的西学传入，主要以传教士和一些中国人对西方科学著作的翻译为主。

The introduction of Western learning at this time was dominated by the translation of Western scientific works by missionaries and some Chinese.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.当时时期主要特点就是整体化和近代化。近代化就是资本主义代替封建专制，这是历史的必然。这也是洋务运动试图走近代化的道理，在世界整体化的趋势下，中国比较被动的卷入。

The main characteristic of the period was holism and modernisation. Modernisation is the replacement of feudal autocracy by capitalism, which is a historical necessity. This was also the rationale behind the attempts of the Westernization Movement to modernise, with China being more passively involved in the trend towards the globalisation of the world as a whole.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 04:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。

The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。

During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。

Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。

The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

1.丝绸之路不仅是古代亚欧互通有无的商贸大道，还是促进亚欧各国和中国的友好往来，沟通东西方文化的友谊之路。

The Silk Road is a commercial avenue for exchanges between Asia and Europe in ancient times as well as a road of frienndship that promotes friendly exchanges between Asian and European countries and China.

The Silk Road is not only a commercial avenue for exchanges of needed goods between ancient Asia and Europe, but also a road of friendship that promotes friendly communications, and cultural exchanges between China and European countries.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.在群星璀璨的中华英杰中，郑和不但以先于西方人航海，胜于西方人的航海技术受到国际社会的关注，而且以其所代表的一种文化精神得到人们的关注。

Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He not only got the attention for his sailing sills which precended and surpassed Westerns, but also attracted people's attention with the cultural spirit he represented.

Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He received international concerns not only because of his navigation skills which surpassed the Westerners, but also for a cultural spirit he represented.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐意味着以西方之学术，灌输于中国，使中国日趋于文明富强之境。

The eastwars spread of western learning means instilling in China with Weastern academics so as to make China more civilized and prosperous.

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning means to instill western academics into China so as to make it more civilized and prosperous.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.处于传统国家和农业文明体系下的中国在面对经过资产阶级革命后的现代国家和工业文明的英国的挑战时显得不堪一击。

Under the traditional agricultural civilization system, China was such vulnerable to the challenges from England, which was already a modern and highly industrilized country after the bourgeois revolution. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Under the traditional agricultural system, China was too vulnerable to face challenges from the British, which was already a modern and highly industrialized country after the bourgeois revolution.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

1.In 119 BC, Zhang Qian set off on his second journey to the Western Regions.

公元前119年，张谦出发了他的第二次西域之旅--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.While Zheng's fleet showed off Chinese might and naval prowess, orthodox Chinese histories depict him as never engaging in gunboat diplomacy, rather developing friendships with foreign leaders.

郑的舰队展示了中国的威力和海军实力，而正统的中国历史则将他描绘为从未从事炮舰外交，而是与外国领导人发展友谊。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.The eastward transmission of Western learning refers to the transmission of Western cultures in China in the mid-1800s.

西方学习向东传播是指1800年代中期西方文化在中国的传播--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.China has always been a planned economy where the government played a big role in deciding how the country should be controlled.

中国一直是计划经济国家，政府在决定如何控制国家方面发挥着重要作用。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。

A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

A vast batch of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road enable this long trip to be one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。

An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。

From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。

Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the guidance of the Han scholars with modern thinking, people learned the science and language of the west opened special schools in some big cities. Armouries, factories and docks were also built with reference to Western models.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。

Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。

Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
1、张骞出使西域这一历史事件具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。

Zhang Qian’s westward travel is of historic and special significance in Chinese history. Zhang Qian made excellent contributions to the opening of the Silk Road from China to “The Western Regions”, which is even praised by today’s world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、陆路是中西往来的最古老的通道，其主要工具是马和骆驼。但牲畜负载有限，费用巨大。此外沿途自然条件艰险，安全没有保障。所以当航海技术发展起来以后，海路在中西交通中所起的作用越来越重要。

Land route is the oldest access between China and“The Western Regions” and the major transportation tools were horses and camels. However, the load of those livestock was limited and cost much. Besides, the natural environment along the land route was hard and dangerous, making travelers lost security assurance.Therefore, with the development of seamanship, sea route began to play an increasingly important role in the communications between China and “The Western Regions”. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、明万历年间，随着耶稣会传教士的到来，对中国的学术思想有所触动。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。当时中国一些士大夫及皇帝接受了科学技术上的知识，但是在思想上基本没有受到影响。

During Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, as the coming of Jesuit missionaries in China, Chinese academic thought was slightly effected by western thought. At the same time of the spreading of Christian doctrines by those missionaries, a large amount of science and technology was introduced into China. Back then, Chinese emperor and some officials accepted knowledge of western science and technology,but their thought didn’t be influenced by the knowledge.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动进行30多年虽然没有使中国富强起来，但洋务运动引进了西方先进的科学技术，使中国出现了第一批近代企业，在客观上为中国民族资本主义的产生和发展起到了促进作用。

The westernization movement which lasted for over 30 years did not make China become richer or stronger, but it introduced the advanced western science and technology which stimulated the emergence of the first modern enterprises, objectively promoting the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Grosheva, Anna==

1. To Zhang's surprise, satisfied with their life, the Da Yuezhi people refused to make an alliance against the Huns.

令张某惊讶的是，大月之人对自己的生活感到满意，拒绝与匈奴结盟。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. He is thought to have become interested in Buddhist teachings later in life and died in India.

人们认为他晚年对佛教教义感兴趣，并在印度去世。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. This study analyzes four stages of the development of modern sports in Shanghai: germination, growth, thriving, and depression.

这项研究分析了上海现代体育发展的四个阶段：发芽，成长，繁荣和沮丧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones.

到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在完成其他主要新地区的整合。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

1.丝绸之路是我国古代一条连接中国和欧亚大陆的交通线路，由于这条商路以丝绸贸易为主，故称为“丝绸之路”。

The Silk Road is a traffic route in the ancienttimes connecting China and Eurasia. This trade route focuses on the trade of silk, hencethe name "theSilk Road".

2.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代路上商业贸易路线。狭义上讲指陆上丝绸之路。广义上讲分为陆上丝绸之路和海上丝绸之路。“陆上丝绸之路”形成于于公元前2世纪与公元1世纪间，直至16世纪仍保留使用，以西汉时期长安为起点(东汉时为洛阳)，经河西走廊到敦煌。“海上丝绸之路”形成于秦汉时期。

The "Silk Road" refers to the ancient commercial trade routes starting from China and connecting Asia,Africa and Europe.In a broad sense,it is divided intothe silk road on the land and silk road on the sea.The "land silk road"opened between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD and remained in use until the 16th century.It started from Chang'an in the Western Han Dynasty(or Luoyang in the Eastern Han Dynasty)to Dunhuang via the Gansu Corridor. The "silk road on the sea" formed in the Qin and Han Dynasty.

3.在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press deeplytransformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from thecontent to the form. Then themodern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4.洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。

Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China.The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of
China's modernhistory andpromoted the Westernization movement.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
1.尽管此次出使西域的主要目的并未完成，但是张骞充分了解了西域各地的风土人情，第一次给中国皇帝带回一了关于印度、中东以及欧洲诸国的消息。

Although the main objective of his expedition was not achieved，he documented the cultures and lifestyles of the peoples of the Western Regions，and for the first time，the Chinese emperor was informed about India，the Middle East and even some European countries.

2.郑和是中国明朝的宦官，也是一位航海探险家，他率领着满载瓷器的船队抵达了非洲和阿拉伯半岛，把长颈鹿带回了中国，同时也在东南亚航道的沿岸修建了城寨。

When Zheng He, the seafaring eunuch explorer of the Chinese Ming dynastic court, guided boats packed with porcelain to Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, he brought giraffes back to China and founded stockades along the shipping lanes of Southeast Asia.

3.“东学西渐”为欧洲启蒙运动送去了灵感，“西学东渐”也对中国和东方国家的文明产生了积极影响。

The introduction of the Chinese culture created inspiration for the Enlightenment in Europe, the Eastward spread of Western learning impacted positively on the Chinese and other Oriental civilizations.

4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。

Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, Western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to Western models.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 04:57, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

1. The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE.

丝绸之路是一条古老的贸易路线网，在中国汉朝期间正式建立，它连接了公元前130年至1453年之间的古代世界贸易地区。

2. The maritime Silk Road was a conduit for trade and cultural exchange between China's south-eastern coastal areas and foreign countries. There were two major routes: the East China Sea Silk Route and the South China Sea Silk Route .

海上丝绸之路是中国东南沿海地区与外国之间进行贸易和文化交流的渠道。有两条主要路线：东中国海丝绸之路和南中国海丝绸之路。

3. The Westernization Movement, also called the Self-Strengthening Movement, was championed by some Qing government officials from the early 1860s to the middle 1890s. Its aim was to introduce Western technology and modern industrial equipment. This nationwide movement failed because its advocates were unwilling to disturb the status quo of the ruling class. The Sino-Japanese War, which began in 1804 and ended with the annihilation of China’s Beiyang Fleet, exposed the utter failure of the three-decade-long Westernization Movement. As a result, reform-minded Chinese had to seek new ways to save the nation.

自1860年代初至1890年代中期，一些清政府官员就发起了洋务运动，也被称为自强运动。其目的是引进西方技术和现代工业设备。这项全国性运动失败了，因为其拥护者不愿打扰统治阶级的现状。抗日战争始于1804年，结束于北洋舰队的歼灭。这场长达3年之久的洋务运动彻底失败了。结果，具有改革意识的中国人不得不寻求新的方法来拯救国家。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guo Lu 郭露==

1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。

The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.

The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。

The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

1. In 139 BC, Zhang Qian traveled westward through the Xiongnu territory. He was captured and detained for over 10 years, yet he and his party escaped at last and resumed their journey toward the Darouzhi.

公元前139年，张潜西行穿越匈奴领土。他被捕并被拘留了十多年，但他和他的同伙终于逃脱了，恢复了前往大柔芝的旅程。

公元前139年，张骞西行穿越匈奴领土，被捕并被拘留了十多年，但他和他的随从最终得以逃脱，继续了前往大月氏的旅途。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 06:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2. The Darouzhi had settled down in the rich and fertile Am River Valley, and their king had no wish to avenge his father’s death by attacking the Xiongnu.

达柔治人定居在肥沃的安姆河谷，他们的国王不希望通过袭击匈奴来为他的父亲报仇。

大月氏人定居在肥沃的安姆河谷，他们的国王不希望通过袭击匈奴来为他的父亲报仇。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 06:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3. During the reign of Emperor Wu, Han sailboats succeeded in opening up a route to the Indian Ocean via the South China Sea, and conducted regular trade with coastal countries.

吴帝统治期间，汉帆船成功地开辟了一条经由南中国海通往印度洋的航线，并与沿海国家进行了定期贸易。--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

汉武帝统治期间，汉朝的帆船成功地开辟了一条经由中国男海通往印度洋的航线，并与沿海国家开展定期贸易。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 06:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==

1. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和"海上香料之路"，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

1. The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.

2. 陆上丝绸之路，从传统意义上讲，是古代横贯亚洲连接欧亚大陆的商贸要道。它起源于西汉时期汉武帝派张骞出使西域，开辟了以都城长安（今西安）为起点，经中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上交通线路。

2. The Silk Road, traditionally, is an ancient trans-Asian trade route connecting the Eurasian continent. It began when Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the Western region, opening up a land transportation route starting from the capital city of Chang'an (now Xi'an), through Central Asia and West Asia, and connecting with the Mediterranean countries.

3. 西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

3. Western learning in the East refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, it usually refers to the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the late Qing dynasty.

4. 洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

4. The foreign affairs movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-help movement to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty from the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

张骞不畏艰险，两次出使西域，沟通了亚洲内陆交通要道，与西欧诸国正式开始了友好往来，促进了东西经济文化的广泛交流，开拓了从我国甘肃、新疆到今阿富汗、伊朗等地的陆路交通，即著名的“丝绸之路”，完全可称之为中国走向世界的第一人。

Zhang Qian has never been counted by the hardships and has made two trips to the Western region, bridging the major inland transportation routes in Asia, officially starting friendly relations with Western European countries, and promoting extensive economic and cultural exchanges between East and West, opening up the Silk Road, which means the land transportation from Gansu and Xinjiang to present-day Afghanistan and Iran.

朕奉天命，君主天下，一体上帝之心，施恩布德。凡覆载之内，日月所照、霜露所濡之处，其人民老少，皆欲使之遂其生业，不至失所

I have been appointed by heaven to rule the world, to give grace and spread virtue like god from the heaven. All the people, young and old, where the sun and the moon shine and the frost and dew are moistened, I want to make their livelihood possible and not to be displaced.

南怀仁设计监制了黄道经纬仪、赤道经纬仪、地平经纬仪、纪限仪和天体仪等适用于西洋新法的天文仪器。至今，这些仪器作为中西科学交流的历史见证，仍陈列在北京古观象台

Ferdinand Verbiest (Nan Huairen) designed and supervised the production of astronomical instruments applicable to the new Western method, such as the ecliptic longitude and latitude instrument, the equatorial longitude and latitude instrument, the horizon longitude and latitude instrument, the chronometer and the celestial instrument. To this day, these instruments are still on display at the ancient observatory in Beijing as a historical witness of the exchange between Chinese and Western science.

在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。京师同文馆、上海广方言馆以及江南制造局的译书馆，是当时翻译西方的中心。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

In the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing industry has reached an unprecedented level. Beijing Tongwen library, Shanghai Guang dialect library and the Translation Library of Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau were the centers of western translation at that time. The translation of books has gone through the process from the simple western scientific and technological works and books to the works of natural science, social science and humanities, and even the latter has the upper hand.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 06:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。

Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. Divided into two routes, the East China Sea and the South China Sea, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road sprouted in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, prospered in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road passes through more than 100 countries and regions. It is a major maritime channel for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, and promotes the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。

The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
1.人们通常讲"丝绸之路"的开端,都是从汉代张骞通西域开始,他的"凿空"事业居功至伟,标志着"丝绸之路"的正式开通。

People usually talk about the beginning of the "Silk Road", are from the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian through the Western Regions began, his "chiseling" business is a great credit, marking the official opening of the "Silk Road".

2.在15世纪的明朝永乐时期,郑和七下西洋,将先进的中华物质文化、精神文化和政教文化远播海外,谱写了人类航海史上的新篇章,稳定了当时的东南亚国际秩序,开辟了中国—印度洋航路,将古代海上丝绸之路推向鼎盛。

In the 15th century, during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He made seven trips to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material, spiritual, political and religious culture overseas, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order in Southeast Asia at that time, opening up the China-Indian Ocean route, and bringing the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its heyday.

During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century, Zheng He made seven voyages to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material culture, spiritual culture, and political and religious culture abroad, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order of Southeast Asia at that time, and opening up The China-Indian Ocean Route pushed the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its peak.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近代的西学东渐,对中国社会产生了广泛而深远的影响,改变了中国人对外部世界的认识。几乎所有的西学门类,以及各种各样的思潮、学说、观念都先后传入中国,在新与旧、古与今、中与外的碰撞中,中国的各种学术得到了极大的开拓和发展。

The Western learning in modern times had a wide and far-reaching impact on Chinese society and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all the Western disciplines, as well as all kinds of ideas, doctrines and concepts, were introduced to China one after another, and in the collision between the old and the new, the ancient and the modern, and the Chinese and the foreign, Chinese scholarship was greatly developed.

The spread of western learning in modern times has had a broad and far-reaching impact on Chinese society, and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all Western learning disciplines, as well as various ideological trends, doctrines, and concepts have been introduced to China. In the collision of new and old, ancient and modern, and China and foreign countries, various academic studies in China have been greatly developed. And development.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是我国近代教育史的开端,可以说,它不仅是对我国传统教育的一次重要变革,更是我国现代教育制度萌芽的一个重要时期。
The westernization movement is the beginning of China's modern education history, it can be said that it is not only an important change to China's traditional education, but also an important period for the sprouting of China's modern education system.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement is the beginning of modern education history in our country. It can be said that it is not only an important change to our traditional education, but also an important period of the germination of our modern education system.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。

By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met.

In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。

Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。

The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.

The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。

The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。

Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。

Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。

Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。

The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。

Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。

Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。
A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。
Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。
Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点。

The traditional silk road starts from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc. with Rome as the end point.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.在地文航海技方面，郑和下西洋的地文航海技术，是以海洋科学知识和航海图为依据，运用了航海罗盘、计程仪、测深仪等航海仪器，按照海图、针路簿记载来保证船舶的航行路线。

In terms of geographical navigation technology, Zheng He's geographical navigation technology was based on marine scientific knowledge and nautical charts. He used navigational instruments such as compass, log and depth sounder to ensure the navigation route of the ship according to the records of charts and needle books.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the Sino Japanese War, because China was facing with the fate of national destruction, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.经过两次鸦片战争的失败，以及太平天国的打击，清朝内外交困，清朝的一部分官僚开始认识到西方坚船利炮的威力。为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。

After the defeat of the two Opium Wars and the attack of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing Dynasty was beset by internal and external troubles, and some of the bureaucrats in the Qing Dynasty began to realize the power of the western strong ships and cannons. In order to relieve domestic and foreign troubles, enrich the country and strengthen the army, and maintain the rule of the Qing Dynasty, they began to learn western culture and advanced technology.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。

The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.

Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。

In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.

2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。

Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".

3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.

2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.

3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.

4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

1.因而，张骞出使西域这一历史事件便具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。

Thus, the historical event of Zhang Qian's mission to the West has special historical significance. Zhang Qian's contribution to the opening of the Silk Road from China to the Western Regions is still recognized by the world.

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。

Zheng He's visit to the West was an unprecedented feat in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century, which played a positive role in the economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries; Zheng He himself, in this historical event, also showed his diplomatic skills, military strategy and spiritual qualities, and won the respect and commemoration of the world.

3.这段时期，以来华西人、出洋华人、书籍、以及新式教育等为媒介，以香港、通商口岸以及日本等作为重要窗口，西方的数学、哲学、天文、物理、化学、医学、生物学、地理、政治学、社会学、经济学、法学、应用科技、史学、文学、艺术等大量传入中国，对于中国的学术、思想、政治和社会经济都产生重大影响。

During this period, Western mathematics, philosophy, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine, biology, geography, political science, sociology, economics, law, applied science and technology, history, literature, and art were introduced to China in large numbers, using Hong Kong, the ports of commerce, and Japan as important windows, and had a significant impact on Chinese academics, thought, politics, and social economy.

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The foreign affairs movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-help movement to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty from the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s.

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。

Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.

Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.

The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Pingki, Tanchangya==
1.张谦被认为是中国民族英雄，并因他在使中国向更广阔的商业贸易世界开放方面所发挥的关键作用而受到崇敬。张干对西部地区的访问导致了丝绸之路的开通。

Zhang Qian is considered a Chinese National hero and revered for the key role he played in opening China to the wider world of commercial trade. Zhang Qian's missions to The Western regions led to the opening of the silk road.

2.郑和（1371-1433）生于云南昆阳的马禾（三宝），常被称为太监三宝。

Zheng He (1371-1433),born Ma He (Sanbao) in kunyang of Yunnan, was often called Eunuch Sanbao.For his meritorious service, he received the name Zheng He from Emperor Yongle.

3.郑和被任命为海军上将，控制着62艘船和27,800名船员，船队中载有一定量的黄金，丝绸和其他贵重物品。他的舰队访问了亚洲和非洲的30多个国家。

Zheng He was placed as the admiral in control of the 62 ships and 27,800 crewmen, which fleet placed carried a amounts of gold, silk and other precious Goods. His fleet visited more than 30 countries in Asia and Africa.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 05:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
1、丝绸之路是起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线，最初的作用是运输古代中国出产的丝绸、瓷器等商品，后来成为东方与西方之间在经济、政治、文化等诸多方面进行交流的主要道路。

The Silk Road was an ancient overland commercial and trade route connecting Asia, Africa and Europe that started from ancient China. Its initial function was to transport commodities such as silk and porcelain produced in ancient China. Later, it became the main road for economic, political and cultural exchanges between the East and the West.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。晚清以降，郑和研究获得迅速发展，但不少重要课题仍无定论。

Zheng He's voyages to the West were an unprecedented feat in the maritime history of the world at the beginning of the 15th century, which played a positive role in the economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. Zheng himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and memory of the world. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the study of Zheng has achieved rapid development, but many important issues are still not conclusive.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、徐光启，上海人，是自李时珍后的明代又一位杰出的科学家。他生于嘉靖41年即公元1562年，父亲是个小商人，家里有一点土地，但日子过得并不宽裕，所以徐光启从小就从事农业生产劳动，这对他后来的成长有很大影响。

Xu Guangqi, a Native of Shanghai, was another outstanding scientist in the Ming Dynasty after Li Shizhen. He was born in 1562, the year of the 41st emperor jiajing. His father was a merchant and his family had a little land, but his life was not very well-off. Therefore, Xu Guangqi was engaged in agricultural production and labor from an early age, which had a great influence on his later growth.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
1.丝绸之路促进了中外经济文化的交流，也密切了汉族与沿途的其他少数民族的关系，促进了我国西北地区的开发。

The Silk Road has enhanced economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, as well as closer relations between the Han nationality and other minorities along the route, and promoted the development of the northwest China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.21世纪海上丝绸之路的战略合作伙伴并不仅限与东盟，而是增进同沿边国家和地区的交往，串起连通东盟、南亚、西亚、北非、欧洲等各大经济板块的市场链，发展面向南海、太平洋和印度洋的战略合作经济带，以亚欧非经济贸易一体化为发展的长期目标。

The strategic partners of the Maritime Silk Road in the 21st century are not only limited to ASEAN, but also to promote exchanges with countries and regions along the border, linking the market chains of ASEAN, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, Europe and other major economic sectors, and developing a strategic cooperative economic belt for the South China Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, with Asia-Europe and Africa economic and trade integration as the long-term goal of development.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.发生在明末清初并且延续到清朝中叶，伴随着耶稣会士来华传教而展开的西方科技传入中国的历史事件，被称为西学东渐第一波。它给中国科技发展带来了全新的可能性。

The historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China, which took place in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and lasted until the middle of the Qing dynasty, accompanied by the Jesuits' mission to China, is known as the first wave of The Eastward Spread of Western Learning. It brings new possibilities to the development of science and technology in China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然有种种缺陷和弊端，但主要历史作用是积极的，是中国近代史上的一次进步运动。它促进了民族资本主义的发展，延缓了而不是加速了中国半殖民地化的进程。

Although the Westernization Movement has various defects and drawbacks, its main historical role is positive. As a progressive movement in the modern history of China, it promoted the development of national capitalism and delayed rather than accelerated the process of China's semi-colonization.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

1.丝绸之路是中国古代最著名的贸易路线。中国古代的张骞被誉为“中国走向世界第一人”，出使西域让他对西域的地理、物产、风俗有了详尽的了解，为开辟丝绸之路打下基础。但是对于西方来说，丝绸之路这样的名称也会让人产生一些误解。首先，丝绸之路不是唯一的一条路线。其次，丝绸之路的存在不仅仅只是为了交易丝绸。许多的商品包括黄金、象牙在内以及许多异域的动物和植物都有进行过交易。

The Silk Road is the most well-known trade route in ancient China. Zhang Qian in ancient China was regarded as “the first Chinese stepping to the world”. He went on a mission to the Western Regions, which made him have a detailed knowledge of geography, products and customs of the Western Regions, laying a foundation for opening up the Silk Road. However, the name to the west was somewhat misleading. Firstly, no single route was taken. Secondly, the Silk Road was not a trade route that existed solely for the purpose of trading in silk. Many other commodities were also traded, from gold and ivory to exotic animals and plants.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.丝绸之路经济带重点畅通中国经中亚、俄罗斯至欧洲(波罗的海)；中国经中亚、西亚至波斯湾、地中海；中国至东南亚、南亚、印度洋。21世纪海上丝绸之路重点方向是从中国沿海港口过南海到印度洋，延伸至欧洲；从中国沿海港口过南海到南太平洋。

The Silk Road Economic Belt focuses on bringing China, Central Asia, Russia and Europe(the Baltic)together;linking China with Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea through Central Asia and West Asia; and connecting China with Southeast Asia, South Asia and Indian Ocean. The 21st- Century Maritime Silk Road is designed to go from China’s coast to Europe through the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean in one route, and from China’s coast through the South China Sea to the South Pacific in the other.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，中国传统学术的基本框架“经、史、子、集”完全被打破，许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击，有的逐渐没落，有的吸收西方学术而加以改进，到民国时期，整个西方式的学术体系架构大致成型。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines, and many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence, the basic framework of Chinese traditional academic “Jing, Shi, Zi and Ji” was completely broken, and many traditional academic was impacted by Western learning, some gradually declined, some absorbed Western Learning and improved it, until the Republic of China period, the entire western-style academic framework is largely built.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动中，洋务派虽然自我标榜“自强新政”，但由于他们都是封建传统思想的卫道者，根本无意于学习资本主义的政治经济制度，只主张学习西方技术，极力反对对封建思想和封建制度进行任何形式的变革，只是徘徊在封建王国的藩篱中自认为有所新创而洋洋得意，所以最终也没能在外国侵略者面前表现出“自强”、“中兴”。相反，在列强侵略势力的进攻下，这些封建思想的卫道者们所举行的“壮举”迅速归于失败。

In the Westernization Movement, the westernizers, though self-styled “self-improvement New Deal”, they were all defenders of the traditional feudal ideology and had no intention to learn the political and economic system of capitalism, only advocated learning Western technology, and strongly opposed any form of change to the feudal ideology and feudal system, only wandering in the fence of the feudal kingdom.In the end, it failed to show “self-improvement” and “prosperity” in front of foreign invaders because it thought it had something new. On the contrary, under the attack of the aggressive forces of the great powers, the "feat" performed by the defenders of the feudal ideology quickly collapsed.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。

Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。

The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。

Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.

During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.

3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。

3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。

4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
1.2100多年前，中国汉代的张骞两次出使中亚，开启了中国同中亚各国友好交往的大门，开辟出一条横贯东西、连接欧亚的丝绸之路。千百年来，在这条古老的丝绸之路上，各国人民共同谱写出千古传诵的友好篇章。

The Silk Road first emerged more than 2,100 years ago during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) after China's imperial envoy Zhang Qian twice visited Central Asia. It became a bridge between East and West, opening the door to friendly engagement between China and Central Asia. For two millennia, countless tales of everlasting friendship between peoples have been woven into this ancient network.

2.中国走的是一条和平发展之路。作为拥有五千年文明积淀的东方大国，中国人历来崇尚以和为贵，从来就没有对外扩张的基因。600多年前，郑和率领当时世界上最强大的船队七次远航太平洋和西印度洋，到访30多个国家和地区，没有侵占一寸土地。这对于当年热衷于殖民扩张的西方国家来说，简直是不可思议，但中国确实做到了。

China follows a path of peaceful development. China is a big country in the East with a five-thousand-year civilization. The Chinese believe in peace. There’s not a single bone of making external expansionism in the body of the Chinese. As early as over six hundred years ago, the Chinese navigator Zheng He led the biggest fleet in the world to the Pacific and west Indian Oceans on seven expeditions, visiting over thirty countries and regions, not taking a single inch of land. That was actually quite inconceivable for those Western powers who were busy making colonial expansion, but the Chinese did that.

3.在19世纪的西学东渐中，基督新教的教士也开始进入中国，天主教士也随口岸的开放来往各地，他们成立教会学校、医院，并开设印书馆、设立期刊、并译著大量各种书籍。对于西学的传入有很大贡献。

In the 19th century, Protestant priests also began to enter China, and Catholics also came with the opening of the ports. They established schools and hospitals, printed books, set up periodicals, and translated a large number of books. They contributed greatly to the Eastward Spread of Western learning。

4.在新航路的开辟，文艺复兴，宗教改革运动，资产阶级革命，产业革命的推动下，至洋务运动发生时，资本主义世界体系已初步完成，人类进入了一个新时期，这也是历史发展的必然。

Driven by the opening of new routes, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, and by the time of the foreign affairs movement, the capitalist world system had been initially completed and mankind had entered a new period, which was a natural development of history.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。

Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。

The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。

The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history moving forward, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。

The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Westernization Movement established the first bunch of modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xu Jing 许静==
1.今人回顾历史，“张骞通西域”已是一段家喻户晓的美谈，张骞也成为历史记载的第一位出使西域的中原人。

As we look back on history, the story of Zhang Qian's visit to the Western Regions is a well-known story, and Zhang Qian became the first Chinese to travel to the Western Regions in history.

2.海上丝绸之路的极盛时期出现在元明两代，明代早期的郑和曾经七次下西洋。这种密切交流一直持续到明代中期。后来，清政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，才让海上丝绸之路失去了夺目的光彩。

The heyday of the Maritime Silk Road came during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, when Zheng He made seven trips to the West in the early Ming Dynasty. This close exchange continued until the mid-Ming Dynasty. It was only later that the Qing government adopted a policy of seclusion that caused the Maritime Silk Road to lose its dazzling lustre.

3.西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

Although the Eastward Spread of Western Learning can also be used to refer to the introduction of Western ideas into China from ancient times to the present day, it is usually used to refer to the introduction of European and American ideas during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the late Qing and early Republican periods.

4.洋务运动直接继承了林则徐、魏源的“中学为体、西学为用”的学西方思想，并把这种思想付诸实践，所以洋务运动开始是顺应历史潮流的，只是在后来发展过程中，应该继续变革而不去变革，致使其以违反历史潮流而结束。

The Westernization Movement directly inherited Lin Zexu's and Wei Yuan's idea of learning from the West, and put this idea into practice, so it was in line with the historical trend at the beginning, but later in the process of development, it should have continued to change but did not do so, resulting in the end of the movement against the historical trend. --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 04:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。

1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang.

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

Western learning refers to the historical process of the dissemination of Western academic thought to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things from ancient times to the present time into China, it usually refers to the end. During the early Qing Dynasty and the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republican period, academic ideas were introduced into Europe and the United States.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。

4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。

After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

After the middle of Ming Dynasty, the government adopted the policy of self-seclusion. At the same time, the shipbuilding technology and navigation technology developed continuously, and the maritime transportation replaced it, which made the Silk Road trade decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。

Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Matteo Ricci spread the Western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which opened the atmosphere for the literati to learn western learning in the late Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。

The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road passes through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road has been the most important route for exchanges between East and West. Although it is called the Silk Road, the goods people trade are not just silk. Both Xuanzang and Marco Polo kept detailed records of their Silk Road journey. --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。

Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of China's most famous explorers,Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The modern newspapers and periodicals that emerged in the tide of western learning changed the traditional aesthetic mechanism, and caused a fundamental change in aesthetics from content to form, thus contributing to the modern transformation of Chinese aesthetics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。

Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
1. 张骞是丝绸之路的开拓者，被誉为“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”。他将中原文明传播至西域，又从西域诸国引进了汗血马、葡萄、苜蓿、石榴、胡麻等物种到中原，促进了东西方文明的交流。
Zhang Qian is a pioneer of the Silk Road, known as "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world". He spread the civilization of the Central Plains to the western regions, and introduced species such as Ferghana horse, grapes, alfalfa, pomegranates and flax to the Central Plains, which promoted the exchange of eastern and Western civilizations.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 郑和每下西洋都带着一支威武雄壮的仪仗队，每到一国登陆时，前呼后拥，彩旗飘扬，服饰灿烂，刀光剑影，使人望而生畏，从而展示中国的富强。
Every time Zheng He went to the west, he carried a powerful and majestic guard of honor. When he landed in a country, he was surrounded by people, with colorful flags flying, splendid costumes and swords, which made people awe at the sight and showed China's prosperity.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。
The spread of Western learning to the East refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic thoughts to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties and the late Qing and early Republic of China.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。
At the initiative of Zeng Guofan, China's first ship was built, the first military academy was established, the first batch of Western books was printed and translated, and the first batch of students was arranged to study in the United States.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
1公元前2世纪，中国就开始开辟通往西域的丝绸之路。汉代使节(envoy)张骞于公元前138年和 119年两次出使西域。
In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively.

In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In 138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2，西汉时期,中国的商船队就到达了印度和斯里兰卡(Sri Lanka),用中国的丝绸换取了琉璃(colored glaze)、珍珠等物品。
In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.

In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3，唐代是中国历史上对外交流的活跃期。据史料记载，与唐代通使交好的国家多达70多个,那时候的首都长安云集了来自各国的使臣、商人和留学生。这种大交流使中华文化远播世界,也促进了各国文化和物产传入中国。
The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, th Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. 'Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.

The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, the Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。

The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.

4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。

Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

1."海上丝绸之路"是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The "South China Sea Silk Road" is also known as the Maritime Cultural Communication Center of China. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只最多（240多艘）、海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，比欧洲国家航海时间早几十年，是明朝强盛的直接体现。

Zheng He's voyages to the West were the largest, the largest number of ships (more than 240), the largest number of seafarers and the longest voyages in ancient China. They were decades earlier than those of European countries. They were the direct manifestation of the prosperity of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period. Missionaries not only spread Christian doctrine, but also introduced a lot of science and technology.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动的最根本的指导思想是"自强"、"求富"。其分类思想就是"师夷制夷" 、"中体西用" 八个字。前四个字"师夷制夷" 表明洋务运动与外国资本主义侵略者的关系，即学习西方的长技用以抵制西方的侵略。

The most fundamental guiding ideology of Westernization Movement is "self strengthening" and "seeking wealth". Its classification thought is "learning from foreigners, controlling foreigners" and "Chinese style and western use". The first four words "learning from foreigners and controlling foreigners" indicate the relationship between the Westernization Movement and foreign capitalist invaders, that is, learning from Western long-term skills to resist Western aggression.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。

The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，

The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

丝绸之路是汉唐千余年间中外经济、文化交流的重要通道，为汉朝的强大，乃至整个中华民族的强大奠定了坚实的基础。
Silk Road, a significant path of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries during the Han and Tang Dynasty, which lasted for over thousand years, laying a solid foundation for greatness of the Han Dynasty, and even that of the whole Chinese nation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

回望历史，浩浩荡荡，郑和七下西洋堪称中国“海上丝绸之路”最壮丽的诗篇，也是人类航海史第一个高峰。
Looking back at the history, Zheng He’s seven voyages to the wast was the most magnificent poem of China’s “Maritime Silk Road”, as well as the first peak in the history of human navigation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。
After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of foreigners and "learn from the advanced technologies in the West in order to resist the invasion of the Western powers.”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。
Westernization Movement, also known as self-improvement movement, was a self-saving movement that westernization school in the late Qing Dynasty introduced western military equipments, machine production, science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。

The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。

In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, under the banner of "self-improvement",the School of Westernization adopted advanced western production technology and established a number of modern military industries.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

1. 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The overland Silk Road originated in the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 years ago). Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the Western Regions to open up an overland route starting from the capital Chang'an (now Xi'an), passing through Gansu and Xinjiang, to Central and West Asia, and connecting Mediterranean countries.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险

Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea explorations in world history before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 尽管如此，纵观中国近代西学东渐的历史,它的成就是巨大的。虽然经历了由表及里、由浅入深的艰难探索和吸收过程,但毕竟使中国的近代化历程大大加速,客观上加快了清王朝灭亡的脚步,为中国早日推翻一个旧世界,建立一个新世界奠定了基础。但墨守成规、亦步亦趋的学习心理使中国的每一步学习都事倍功半,成效大打折扣.学习中的'一边倒'现象和盲目照搬现象使中国的西学东渐走了许多弯路,学习中的'急功近利'思想也是造成西学东渐成效甚微的重要原因。

In spite of this, looking at the history of the spread of western learning to the east in modern China, its achievements are huge. Although it has gone through a difficult process of exploration and absorption from the outside to the inside and from the shallow to the deep, it has greatly accelerated China's modernization process, objectively accelerated the pace of the demise of the Qing Dynasty, and laid a foundation for China to overthrow an old world and establish a new world as soon as possible. However, the learning psychology of sticking to the rules and following the same trend makes every step of China's learning get twice the result with half the effort and the effect is greatly reduced. The phenomenon of "one-sided" and blind copying in learning have led to many detours in the spread of western learning to the east in China, and the thought of "eager for quick success and instant benefits" in learning is also an important reason for the little effect of the spread of western learning to the east.

4. 洋务运动后期，洋务派为解决军事工业资金、燃料、运输等方面的困难，打出“求富”的旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。

In the late period of the Westernization Movement, in order to solve the difficulties in capital, fuel and transportation of military industry, the Westernization Movement set up a number of civilian industries under the banner of "seeking wealth".
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 03:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。

Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。

Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
1.东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Sea Spice Road".

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times.

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Westernization Movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization School in the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to bring in Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.

4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。

The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。

Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which originated from ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。

Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Maritime Silk Road is the sea route through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with foreign countries. This Silk Road centered on the South China Sea, thus being called the South China Sea Silk Road as well.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic course of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty to the modern times.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, was a self-helping movement carried out by the westernization group of the late Qing dynasty from the 1860s to 1990s for introducing Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to China to save the Qing government.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1.张骞到大宛后，向大宛国王说明了自己出使月氏的使命和沿途种种遭遇，希望大宛能派人相送，并表示今后如能返回汉朝，一定奏明汉皇，送他很多财物，重重酬谢。大宛王本来早就风闻东方汉朝的富庶，很想与汉朝通使往来，但苦于匈奴的中梗阻碍，未能实现。汉使的意外到来，使他非常高兴。

After arriving in Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained to the king of Dawan his mission and experiences along the way, and hoped that Dawan could send men to escort him to the Darouzhi. He also said that if he could return to the Han Dynasty in the future, he would tell the emperor of Han and implore him to send a lot of wealth and rewards to the The the king of Dawan. The King of Dawan had long heard of the wealth of the Han Dynasty and wanted to communicate with Han, but he failed to do so because of the hindrance from the Xiongnu. The unexpected arrival of han Emissary made him very happy.

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's expeditions were the largest in ancient China, with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. They were also the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the voyages of European geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th century.

3.此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。

At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time. Missionaries spread the Christian doctrine, but also spread a lot of science and technology.

4.为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。

In order to relieve domestic troubles and foreign invasion, enrich the country and strengthen the army to maintain the rule of Qing dynasty, some people began to learn Western culture and advanced technology, so they were called westernization Group.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

1.Zhang Qian made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia, and even to Europe. From then on, the Chinese used this channel to sell silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia. At the same time introduce gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

2.Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China, the largest number of ships and seafarers, and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea expeditions in the history of the world before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

3.The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the academic thoughts in Europe and the United States during the two periods of the late Ming and early Qing and the late Qing and the early Republic. Incoming.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动的内容之一是创办新式学校，选送留学生出国深造，培养翻译人才、军事人才和科技人才。1862年在北京设立的京师同文馆，就是中国最早的官办新式学校。

One of the contents of the Westernization Movement was to establish new schools, select and send overseas students to study abroad, and train translators, military talents and scientific and technological talents. The Jingshi Tongwenguan, established in Beijing in 1862, was the earliest government-run new school in China.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

不仅是中国与这些国家进行交流，通过丝路，印度、东南亚、中东、非洲和欧洲之间的贸易交流也迅速活跃起来。

The Silk Road not only deepen exchanges between China and these countries, but also gave an impetus to trades between India, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.

郑和下西洋的路线，被称为海上丝绸之路，那是一条向往陌生的海岸线的开放之路。

The sailing routes of Zheng He, also known as the Maritime Silk Road, was an open road symbolizing people's aspiration to unfamiliar coastlines.

明末清初,西方传教士来华传教,掀起了西学东渐的第一次高潮。

In the late Ming and early Qing dynasty, lots of western missionaries came to China , which brought the first upsurge of the Eastward spread of Western learning.

洋务运动的主要人物具有典型性和代表性的是张之洞和李鸿章。

The main figures of the Westernization Movement are Zhang Zhidong and Li Hongzhang.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。

The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。

Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

1.Today, Zhang Qian's travels are associated with the major route of transcontinental trade, the Silk Road. His missions opened trade routes between East and West and exposed different products and kingdoms to each other through trade.

今天，张谦的旅行与跨大陆贸易的主要路线“丝绸之路”相关。他的任务打开了东西方之间的贸易路线，并通过贸易使不同的产品和王国相互接触。 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Zheng He generally sought to attain his goals through diplomacy, and his large army awed most would-be enemies into submission. However, a contemporary reported that Zheng He "walked like a tiger" and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might.

郑和通常试图通过外交来实现自己的目标，他的大部队敬畏大多数可能成为敌人的敌人。然而，当代报道说，郑和“走得像老虎一样”，当他认为有必要用中国的军事力量打动外国人民时，并没有因为暴力而退缩。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.With the Jesuits coming to China to preach, the historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China was called the first wave of the introduction of Western learning to the East.

随着耶稣会士来到中国讲道，西方科学技术传入中国的历史性事件被称为第一波西方知识向东方传入的浪潮。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones into its division of labour.

到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在将其他主要的新地区纳入其劳动分工中。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

20201228 cult

2020-12-25T07:32:36Z

Hu Jin: /* Hu Jin 胡瑾 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。
In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。
Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。
In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。
The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 cult

2020-12-25T07:31:28Z

Hu Jin: /* Hu Jin 胡瑾 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集，也被称为六祖坛经，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。
In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。
Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。
In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。
The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201215 cultexam 1

2020-12-21T15:52:33Z

Hu Jin: /* Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China - Hu Jin 胡瑾 - MTI 英语笔译 */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Chinese Astrology - Alsied, Saffana==
"Chinese Astrology"--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED ,Student No:201921080006.. Major..Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural studies.

===The History===

So, what is Chinese astrology anyway? Chinese astrology is an ancient art, which uses the time of birth, including the year, month, day, and time, to reveal insights into a person’s personality traits, lifestyle, health, career direction, and compatibility with others. Although the exact origin of the system is unknown, Chinese astrology has guided the Chinese for over five thousand years and has a profound influence on our lives. The Chinese system of zodiac is actually based on a ten-year Sun-Moon cycle that conforms to the ancient Chinese agricultural calendar. The cycle is divided into the five elements: Water, Wood, Fire, Earth, and Metal as well as the twelve animals, which represent each year. The system is influenced by Yin (female) and Yang (male) cosmic force, which is said to be an interpretation of universal harmony and balance. where the source is coming from ?

===The Five Elements And YIN/YANG===

Chinese believe that the five basic elements, Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water form everything in the Universe. As a fundamental part of the Oriental philosophy, the five elements are divided into Conducive and Controlling interrelationships. A Conducive interrelationship means that these five elements will produce one another and help nourish each other. We get Fire from Wood because fire is produced by burning wood. We get Earth from Fire because fire can burn everything into ashes (earth). We get Metal from Earth because all metal has to be extracted from the earth. We get Water from Metal because metal will change into liquid when heated. And, from Water we get Wood because water nourishes plants, thus producing wood. where is the quotation please?

A Controlling interrelationship means that these five elements can control or be destroyed by another element. Wood controls Earth because trees draw nourishment out of the earth. Earth controls Water because the earth can absorb water and also blocks the flow of water through man-made dykes or naturally occurring phenomena. Water controls Fire because the water is used to put out fires. Fire controls Metal because the heat of a fire can melt metal. And, Metal controls Wood because trees can be chopped down by the metal blade of an ax. Under this philosophy, no element is considered the strongest or weakest. Each element is either controlled by another element or can produce another element. In fact, they are dependent on one another and therefore, are considered equal. In Chinese astrology, during the complete sixty-year cycle, each of the animal signs is combined with the five main elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The element of your zodiac sign will exercise its influence on your life. where is the quotation please?

===THE FORCES OF YIN / YANG===

Since ancient times, the Chinese have believed that two major forces, the Yin and the Yang, control the universe. These two forces are the foundation of Chinese philosophy, people, and even Chinese medicine. Generally speaking, the Yin signifies death whereas the Yang indicates life.

A well-known symbol called “Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) embodies the Yin and the Yang. In the circle, the two forces equilibrate the energy and keep everything balanced. No force is stronger or weaker than the other, when one is at its highest, the other is at its lowest. Together the Yin and the Yang become a whole and thus keep the universe in harmony. where the source is coming please?

Chinese astrology was invented to achieve the two following goals;

1.) To predict the future,

2.) To determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.

According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu, and is still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology to predict one's fortune. Chinese Astrology Signs are based on the year that a person is born, with each of the twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs being represented by a particular animal. The twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs are; Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig. It is felt in Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year. where the source is coming please ?

Today, the Chinese Zodiac constitutes as a significant part of the traditional Chinese culture. At festive events paper-cut and New-Year pictures of the Chinese Zodiac are popular among the Chinese people. In addition, the Chinese Zodiac is also seen as the symbol of China itself, enforcing its vital role within Chinese culture, although the dragon is the most recognized totem of the Chinese nation. quotation please?

The Chinese Zodiac plays a part within people's religious beliefs in China. The 12 animals are divided into two categories of Yin and Yang, which are the underlying principles of Chinese philosophy and medicine by ancient Chinese people in accordance with the Five Elements (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). A set of fortunetelling methods proclaim that the twelve Chinese horoscope animals decide people's, as a result, the Chinese Zodiac began to play a crucial part in people’s characters, friendships, marriages, careers, health, fortune and other vital parts of their life. Within Chinese astrology, it is considered that when a person comes to their attributed year, which is decided by the year when they were born, they must wear a red belt to pursue good fortune and avoid bad luck. This custom of 'Birth Year' is widespread throughout China.quotation please?

You might also be surprised to hear that according to some astrologers, your Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.

===Terms and Expressions===

1. Chinese Astrology 中国占星学

2. Chinese Zodiac 中国十二生肖

3. Agricultural calendar 农业日历

4. ”Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) “太极拳”（终极目标）

5. The Oriental philosophy 东方哲学

===Questions===

1-Why was Chinese astrology invented?

2-How Chinese astrology relates to a person’s divine destiny?

3-What important role does the Chinese zodiac play in Chinese culture?

4- What is Chinese astrology based on?

5-Is Chinese astrology accurate?

===Answers===
1. To predict the future, to determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.

2. A person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu.

3. The year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year.

4. The Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme based on the lunar calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle. The 12-year cycle is an approximation to the 11.85-year orbital period of Jupiter.

5. Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.

===References===

Ting, Julian (2014), 占星學量子, createspace, ISBN 978-149373455-9

何丙郁. (2003). ''Chinese mathematical astrology: reaching out to the stars'', Routledge, ISBN 0415297591

Sun, Xiaochun, Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). ''The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society''. Leiden: Brill. 3-4. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

"'Almanac' 'lunar' zodiac beginning of spring as the boundary dislocation? — China Network". 16 February 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2011.

Eberhard, Wolfram. (1986). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols''. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. 93, 105, 309.

"Five Elements (Wu Xing)". YourChineseAstrology.com

==Spring Festival Couplets - Cao Runxin 曹润鑫 - 202070080634 - 英语口译 ==
[[File:Chunlian.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Chunlian, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]

===Spring Festival Couplets===
Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. It is the most common and important custom when celebrating Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China.With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).

Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).

The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).

There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also traditions for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China.In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).

===References===

*Zhang Yanchen 张砚宸. (2020). 中国春联的文化内涵与艺术特色探微 [The exploration of the cultural connotations and artistic features of Chinese Spring Couplets]. ''汉字文化'' Chinese Character Culture (19) 34-35.
*Li Wenyan 李文艳. (2018). 春联的演变历程及民俗价值 [The evolution and folk value of Spring Festival Couplets]. ''艺术品鉴'' Art Appreciation (24) 211-212.
*Qian Yu, Liu Tao 钱钰，刘涛. (2018). 从桃符到春联的演进——基于祝由文化兴衰的视角 [The Evolution from Taofu to Spring Couplets - A perspective based on the rise and fall of Zhuyu Culture]. ''民间文化论坛'' Folk Culture Forum (01) 75-83.
*Han Daqiang 韩大强. (2014). 论春节仪式中符号元素的文化意蕴——以春联、门神为例 [On the cultural implications of symbolic elements in Chinese New Year Rituals - Taking Spring Couplets and Door Gods as examples]. ''信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Xinyang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) (05) 83-87.

===Terms and Expressions ===
Spring Festival Couplets, Spring Couplets, Chinese New Year Couplets, New Year Scroll 春联

Paste 贴

Horizontal scroll 横联

Upper scroll 上联

Lower scroll 下联

===Questions ===
1.What’s the purpose of pasting Spring Festival Couplets?

2.What’s the historical origin of Spring Festival Couplets?

3.How to read the Spring Festival Couplets?

4.How to do with the Old Couplets?

===Answers ===
1.To expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.

2.It originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty.

3.First, look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.

4.Remove the old scrolls until the next New Year or tear them off after the Lantern Festival.

==Instruments, Guzheng - Chen Han 陈涵 - 202070080580 - MTI 英语笔译==

[[File:Guzheng.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Guzheng in the shop, photo by Christopher Hsia. Click[https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Even_more_Guzhengs_(%E5%8F%A4%E7%AE%8F)_cropped.jpg#mw-jump-to-license]for original source.]]

===Guzheng===

''Guzheng'' or ''Zheng'' is one of the oldest traditional ethnic musical instruments in China. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments. As early as 2500 years ago, ''zheng'' has become an important instrument and was widespread at that time. Due to the long history, its primitive simplicity and elegant sound, people are used to calling it ''guzheng'' (''gu'' refers to “ancient”). It has beautiful timbre, broad ranges, rich performance skills and strong expressive power, so it is deeply loved by Chinese. (Wang Xiaohong & Gu Haijun 2019, 69)

There are varied accounts for how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part. (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51)

The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were originally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is approximately rectangular, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. Since the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)

[[File:Fingerpicks.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Using fingerpicks to play the guzheng. Image from Baidu. Click[https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=古筝&step_word=&hs=0&pn=27&spn=0&di=9900&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3246661627%2C3658564396&os=3335747328%2C3552694810&simid=0%2C0&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1718&fr=&fmq=1607348039297_R&fm=result&ic=&s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=http%3A%2F%2Fi2.hdslb.com%2Fbfs%2Farchive%2F6a84e824b3507f96cd3f55df9c2d38744bb81962.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Ff_z%26e3Bojtk5_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fojtk5AzdH3F%25Ec%25la%25bC%25El%25b8%25ln%25Em%25AE%25bA%25El%25ba%25l9%25Ec%25bF%25A9%25E0%25AD%25lD%3Fiwfet1j5%3D8%26fjw6viet1j5%3D8&gsm=1c&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]for original source.]]

The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke a sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the stings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)

Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, several new schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school (Cao Yue 2002, 84).

In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated in a TV show — ''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classical music competition show. In a performance, Wang merged the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'' by playing the ''guzheng'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)

From ancient times to the present, the charm of the ''guzheng'' has never diminished. The combination of cultural heritage and modern techniques has made this national musical instrument more radiant.

===References===

*Cao Yue 曹月. (2019). 古筝的主要流派与风格特征 [The main schools and styles of the guzheng]. ''东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Southeast University (Philosophy and Social Science) (04) 84-87.
*Duan Lili 段丽丽. (2006). 古筝的起源与发展 [The origin and development of the guzheng]. ''民族音乐'' Folk Music (01) 57-58.
*Gao Yiwei 高祎蔚. (2020). 浅谈古筝演奏中音色的体现及把握 [The embodiment and grasp of timbre in guzheng performance]. ''中国文艺家'' Chinese literary artists (05) 39+165.
*Jin Jianmin 金建民. (1988). 古筝起源之谜 [The mystery of the origin of the guzheng]. ''中国音乐'' Chinese Music (01) 51.
*Liu Xueqi 刘雪琦. (2019). 浅谈古筝的起源与发展历程 [The origin and development history of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (14) 83.
*Tong Guiying 佟桂影. (2017). 王中山古筝作品的艺术特征研究 [Research on the artistic characteristics of Wang Zhongshan's guzheng performances]. ''才智'' Talents (24) 197-198.
*Wang Xiaohong, Gu Haijun 王晓红, 顾海珺. (2019). 浅谈古筝传承与发展 [The development of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (23) 69.

===Terms and Expressions===

*Meng Tian 蒙恬
*Zhao Lin 赵璘
*''Records on Words'' 《因话录》
*anterior mountain 前岳山
*posterior mountain 后岳山
*''Yan Zhu'' 雁柱
*string pegs 弦钉
*turning box 调音盒
*zither feet 琴足
*paulownia 桐木
*mahogany 红木
*''Dai Mao'' 玳瑁
*''Yi Jia'' 义甲
*''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo'' 勾、托、劈、挑、抹
*''High Mountains and Running Water'' 《高山流水》
*''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' 《汉宫秋月》
*''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' 《寒鸦戏水》
*''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' 《柳青娘》
*Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu, Luo Jiuxiang 王巽之、曹正、曹东扶、罗九香
*Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang 王中山、袁莎、周望
*''National Music Ceremony'' 《国乐大典》

===Questions===

1. What kind of musical instrument does the ''guzheng'' belong to?

2. Why the ''guzheng'' is deeply loved by Chinese?

3. Who is Meng Tian?

4. According to the legend, how did the ''se'' develop into the ''zheng''?

5. How many strings does the ''guzheng'' have? How long is the guzheng?

6. What is the function of movable bridges?

7. What are used by ''guzheng'' performers to play the instrument? And What are they also called?

8. In ancient times, what materials were the fingerpicks made of?

9. Generally speaking, how does the players strike notes?

10. What styles can ''guzheng'' be divided into?

11. Which school does ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belong to?

12. Do you know any other ''guzheng'' music? Please list some pieces.

===Answers===

1. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments.

2. It has beautiful timbre, broad range, rich performance skills and strong expressive power.

3. He is a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), and a legend says the early form of the ''zheng'' is said to have been invented by him.

4. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part.

5. It usually has 21 strings and is 163 centimeters long.

6. They are moved to change the timbres.

7. ''Guzheng'' performers use fingerpicks to play the instrument. They are also called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia''.

8. In ancient times, fingerpicks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade.

9. Performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges.

10. The Northern school and the Southern school.

11. ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belongs to the Shandong school.

12. ''Harvest Celebration'' (''Qing Feng Nian'' 《庆丰年》), ''Fighting the Typhoon'' (''Zhan Tai Feng'' 《战台风》) and ''Song of the Fishermen'' (''Yu Zhou Chang Wan'' 《渔舟唱晚》).

--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - 202070080581 - 英语笔译==
===Facial makeup===

Facial makeup, a sort of makeup art used in stage performance, is painted on the face of traditional opera singers in China and varies when it come to different types of role. The character roles in Beijing opera are divided into four main types according to the sex, age, social status and profession of the character. Sheng refers to male roles and is divided into laosheng (middle-aged or old men), xiaosheng (young men) and wusheng ( men with martial skills). Dan refers to female roles and is also subdivided into various types. Qingyi is a woman with a strict moral code; and laodan is an elderly woman. Jing refers to the roles with painted faces. They are usually warriors, statesmen or even demons. Chou, clown, is a comic character and can be recognized at first sight for his special make-up.(Wang Hai 2018, 62)

The facial makeup of “sheng” and “dan” is quite simple with a thin layer of powder, called “plain face” while that of “jing” and “chou” is relatively complicated, and the former, in particular, is applied with heavy color and complicated patterns, thus gaining the name of “painted face”. In Beijing Opera, facial make-up, which is applied to Jing roles only, shows the character’s age and personality by using different colors. “Chou” is commonly called the clown as they are accustomed to wiping a patch of white powder on the nose.(Wang Hai 2018, 62)

People hold different views when speaking of the origin of the facial makeup. It is said facial makeup was closely related to a kind of dance, called Damian, which appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and thrived in the Tang Dynasty. It was performed by a single man aiming to extol King Lanling Gao Changgong’s outstanding military service and merits. He was courageous and good-looking and was bound to win every time he worn a mask that seemed frightening in the battlefield. As for the facial makeup used in opera, it is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.(Cao Juan 2019, 58)

The legendary drama played a dominant role in Ming Dynasty, rich in content and fine in role division. Both jing and chou wear their own special facial makeup. The basic color is mostly designed based on the description in the drama literature or the singers’ personal imagination. For instance, facial makeup of Guanyu is red and that of Baozhen is black. Their brow and eyes are exaggerated in some way. The pattern ratio has changed as well. Unlike the Ming Dyansty, there are both simple and sophisticated facial makeups with the same basic color. In the Mid-Qing Dynasty, as the local drama arose, facial makeup varied greatly in different places and possessed distinct local features and folk characteristics. More than 300 kinds of dramas sprung up after the 18th century. Therefore, the drama characters mount and their division is much more finer. More colors like blue, green, yellow, grey and orange are added in jing.(He Weiwei 2015, 138)

Red

Red facial makeup is symbolic of loyalty, upright and integrity like the characters Guan Yu and Wu Han.

Black

Black facial makeup gives people the impression that the actor is serious,courageous and wise like Bao Zheng, a impartial official. It also stands for mighty force and boldness like Zhang Fei in drama the Three Kingdoms and Li Kuai in drama Water Margin of the Marsh.

White

White facial makeup bears a derogatory sense, indicating a deceitful and suspicious nature like Cao Cao in drama the Three Kingdoms and Yan Song, Qin Hui.

Blue

Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly like Ma Wu and Dou Erdun.

Purple

Purple facial makeup shows more sedate and righteous like Xu Yanzhao and Zhuan Zhu.

Golden

Golden facial makeup symbolizes dignity and power fitting roles like supernatural being such as Tathagata (Sakyamuni, the creator of Buddhism) and Erlang Shen (a Chinese God with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead).

The features of facial makeup are mainly as follows:
First, it is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness.Second, it is closely related to the character’s personality.Thirdly, its pattern is stylized. Chinese Peking opera makeup is favored by many opera enthusiasts and is widely known both at home and abroad, having been regarded as one of the mark of traditional Chinese culture.
It is derived from the stage and could be seen on some large buildings, packages of some commercials, various porcelains and people’s clothes in different styles. It is far beyond the scope of stage use, showing its status in people’s heart and strong vitality. Out of curiosity and affection for facial makeup in Chinese opera, a great many foreign friends and Chinese of insight start to explore the mystery of it.(Cao Juan, 2019, 61)

===Terms and Expressions===

painted face 花脸

clown 丑角

Sheng 生

Dan 旦

Jing 净

Chou 丑

Qingyi 青衣

xiaosheng 小生

laosheng 老生

wusheng 武生

Gao Changgong 高长恭

legend，romance 传奇剧

Erlang Shen, Erlang 二郎神

Tathagata, Buddha 如来佛

Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Water Margin of the Marsh 水浒传

===Questions===

1.How many types are character roles divided into in Beijing opera?

2.What are the differences bbetween Sheng and Dan?

3.What are the special features of Chou?

4.What is the function of facial mask in Beijing opera?

5.What are the main features of facial makeup?

6.What are the characteristics of characters wearing blue facial makeup?

===Answers===

1.Four types:Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou.

2.Sheng refers to male roles while Dan refers to female roles.

3.A patch of white powder is wiped on their nose.

4.It is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.

5.It is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness and is closely related to the character’s personality and its pattern is stylized.

6.Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly

===References===

He Weiwei 何伟伟.(2015).浅谈京剧脸谱的色彩研究[Study on the colors of the facial makeup in Beijing opera].艺术科技 Art and Technology ,28(04):138-139.

Cao Juan 曹娟.(2019).中国京剧脸谱之考究[Study on Beijing opera facial makeup].中国京剧,(01):58-61.

Wang Hai 王海.(2018).京剧脸谱程式化特征与传统文化元素[Features of Beijing opera facial makeup and the traditional elements it related to].中国京剧 Chinese Peking Opera,(08):62-65.

==Literature, Science Fiction, and Fantasy - Dashkin, Gennadii - Student No.201911080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

=== Three Worldwide Famous Chinese Novelists of Modern Science Fiction and Fantasy===

Nowadays, modern literature is one of the most interesting and gorgeous sides of worldwide cultural processes. It heals soul and heart and can change everything to its best. However, it can be difficult sometimes to talk about literature without dividing it into genres. We can guess that the modern generation in the whole world prefers to read something about the future. Something, that can help to understand what will be next. And that is why one of the most popular genres are with no doubt - Science Fiction and Fantasy. So, let's see who are the most popular Chinese sci-fi and fantasy authors who broaden our mental horizons.

====1.Liu Cixin（刘慈欣）====

Liu Cixin was born in 1963 in Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, 400 kilometers from Beijing. Other famous natives of the area were Gaozu, the founder of the Tang Imperial Dynasty, and Jia Zhangke, the chief filmmaker of modern China. The parents of the future writer worked in a mine in Shanxi, and his first conscious years fell on the heyday of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). (Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America 2019, 1)

[[File: 21.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Cixin Liu. ILLUSTRATION: ZACHARY BAKO FOR THE WALL STREET JOURNAL. Click [https://www.zacharybako.com/]for original source.]]

Liu received his technical education from North China University of Water and Electricity. After graduation, he worked as a computer engineer at a power plant in his native Yangquan. Now Liu Qixin is combining his studies of literature with the post of chief engineer of the China Energy Investment Corporation at the Nianziguan Power Plant. Liu Cixin started writing relatively late. At 26, he wrote China in 2185, but the book never saw the light of the day. Mostly this was due to the consequences of the Cultural Revolution - in the late 80s, almost no science fiction literature was published in China. Later, when the opportunity arose to publish the novel, the writer himself re-read it, considered it second-rate, badly written, and naive, and decided that he did not deserve publication. However, Liu Cixin did not give up and in 1999 he released another novel, written by him at a young age, but significantly modified and edited for publication. This is how Liu Cixin's first big book appeared - the novel "Supernova Era". Before that, some of his stories were published in magazines, but the writer's name became really noticeable after the publication of this book. In it, as a result of the radiation of a supernova, all people over 30 are threatened with death within a year. Since then, the life of humanity has changed dramatically, and although the doomed older generation made heroic efforts to make the existence of young people better, a year later the world is plunging into an abyss of chaos and violence. (Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,352)

Liu's first books were warmly received in China, but nevertheless, the real success came to the author only in 2006, when he published the first part of his trilogy "Memory of the Earth's Past" - the novel "The Problem of Three Bodies" in the Chinese journal Science Fiction World. This book first made the writer a real star in his homeland, and 7 years later, when the Chinese-American science fiction writer Ken Liu translated it into English, and all over the world. The novel has become so popular that the entire trilogy is often referred to as "The Three-Body Problem," although this is not formally true.In 2006, the book won the Galaxy Award, the main Chinese literary science fiction award, and after being translated into English, it was nominated for all three major world awards: Hugo, Locus, and Nebula. The novel only won the Hugo Award, but in 2017 the third part of the Eternal Life of Death trilogy took over Locus. The novel gain such a great popularity that famous people like Barack Obama and Marc Zuckerberg recommended it to every single person in order to understand the perhaps future and how to avoid the negative contact with aliens.(Kakutani, Obama’s Secret to Surviving the White House Years:Books 2017, 1)

Liu Cixin is definitely a unique writer, with his own style, philosophy, and special vision of science fiction. So far, only three of his novels have been published outside of China, but he has already won such recognition that Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg recommend reading the Cixin trilogy. But the main thing that Liu Cixin has already managed to prove with his books is that science fiction literature is capable of giving generous shoots not only on the basis of European culture. Liu Cixin is the first person outside of the Western world to achieve resounding success in science fiction. And, perhaps, his trilogy is just the beginning of a new global phenomenon. After all, it's not for nothing that many experts have been saying for several years that the future belongs to China. It is very likely that this phrase refers not only to politics and economics but also to science fiction literature.Also Liu Cixin is a big fan of reading books and he sometimes recommend not only to read classical sci-fi novels but also modern authors like Chen Qiufan, Derek Kunsken and so on.(Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,15)

====2.Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆） ====

[[File:22.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Chen Qiufan photographed in Beijing by Gilles Sabrié. Click [https://www.gsabrie.com/] for original source.]]

Today this author is called by others the “Chinese William Gibson”. He can also be called one of the leaders of Chinese science-fiction and a cyberpunk novelist. He was born in China in 1981 in a seaside province in southeastern China called Guangdong, which borders Hong Kong and Macau. To say more accurately he grew up a few miles from Guiyu, the largest waste dump. Mountains of scrap electronics are shipped there every year from all over the world. Thousands of workers sort through the garbage in search of something that is suitable for recycling. This topic became the central topic in a novel called “Waste Tide”.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,3)

Also, by the early 2000s, Chen Qiufang had become a big fan of virtual chats and the Internet. He saw great potential in the Internet and technologies in general, an opportunity to change the world for the better. After graduation, Chen worked with Google, Baidu, and co-founded Noitom, a virtual reality startup in Beijing. As science fiction began to gain popularity in China and receive support from the government, Qiufan turned to full-fledged novels.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,5)

His debut book was ''The Empty Wave'', "combining realism and allegory to represent the hybridity of humans and machines." Chen Qiufan's novels and stories won three Galaxy Awards and twelve Chinese Nebula Awards. His works have been translated into German, French, Finnish, Korean, Czech, Italian, Japanese, Polish, and Russian. His book ''Waste Tide'' became one of the most discussed books around the world and got universal acclaim from critics and usual readers. The fantastic mix of dark future with reality components made this book a guidebook for those who are worried about ecological problems and the darkest sides of human progress.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,8)

Chen Qiufan is a constant consumer of entertainment and literature. He watches at least 100 new films and reads at least 50 books a year. He was recently recruited into the development of a television series called Eros, which will launch in 2019-2020. He compares it to Netflix's dystopian show Black Mirror. Chen travels frequently between Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong for various projects and literary festivals.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide,2019,17)

====3.Rebecca F. Kuang (匡灵秀)====

[[File:23.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Rebecca F. Kuang. Click [https://www.instagram.com/kuangrf/?hl=ru] for original source.]]

When Rebecca was four years old, her family emigrated to the United States from Guangzhou, China. Kuang's father grew up in Leiyang, in Hunan province, and his mother in Hainan Island.Quang grew up in Dallas, Texas, and later went to Georgetown University in large part because of the college's discussion team. Kuang began writing The Opium War when she worked as a debate trainer in China during a break from her studies. Rebecca always liked writing, but she was afraid that an education related to literature might not give her a profession in demand. But during the direct work on the book, she completed several literary courses. As a result, her first novel was published when she was only 22 years old.Rebecca graduated from the university in June 2018. She further attended Magdalene College, Cambridge University as a recipient of the 2018 Marshall Fellowship, where she earned her Master of Philosophy in Sinology. She is currently pursuing a Master's Degree in Contemporary Sinology from Oxford University.(Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018,4)
Her debut novel, The Opium War, is a war fantasy setting inspired by the history and culture of China. The Opium War is a dark fantasy genre. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century. The conflict refers to the Second Sino-Japanese War, but the scenery is inspired by the Song Dynasty. The novel accurately recreates the social, mythological, and philosophical realities of China of the chosen era.(Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018,7)

The last news about R.F.Kuang is that she wrote a short tale for an anthology of Star Wars saga, which was published in November. She wrote about this news in her Twitter.(Twitter 2020)

===Terms and Expressions===

1. Science fiction - 科幻

2. Fantasy - 奇幻

3. Horizon - 地平线

4. Broad - 拓宽

5. Hybrid - 杂种

6. The plot - 情节

7. Garbage - 垃圾堆

8. Heyday - 壮年

9. Supernova - 超新星

===References===

*Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/03/magazine/ken-liu-three-body-problem-chinese-science-fiction.html

*Chen Qiufan 陈楸帆. (2019). Waste Tide 荒潮. Tor Books; Translation edition. Translated by Ken Liu - 342 pp.

*Liu Cixin 刘慈欣. (2019). Supernova Era 超新星纪元. Tor Books; First Edition. Translated by Joel Martinsen - 352 pp.

*Rebecca F.Kuang 匡灵秀. (2018). The Poppy War 罂粟战争. Harper Voyager - 530 pp.

*Michiko Kakutani, Obama’s Secret to Surviving the White House Years: Books. The New York Times, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/16/books/obamas-secret-to-surviving-the-white-house-years-books.html

*Twitter.https://twitter.com/kuangrf

===Questions===

1. What is the name of the most important tilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?

2. What is the most popular trilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?

3. Who is called Chinese William Gibson?

4. What is Rebecca Quang's Opium War plot based on?

===Answers===

1. The Remembrance of Earth's Past

2. Memory of the Earth's Past

3. Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆）

4. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century.

==Stilts - Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 202070080582 MTI 英语笔译==
[[File:stilts.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Stilts presentation during the Miliangtun Stilt Festival, image from Baike. Click [http://img3.imgtn.bdimg.com/it/u=2060438651,2837589998&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

===Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage — Miliangtun Village Stilts===

<center>Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 202070080582 MTI 英语笔译</center>

====Introduction====

Stilt is one of the folk dances of the Han nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near. (Huo Linmo, 2018)

As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty and bestowed by Emperor Qianlong. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing over 250 years ago. (Xingxing, 2019)

Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performance techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage. (Xingxing, 2019)

The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic in these funny characters. (Xingxing, 2019)

The only serious character among the 13 roles is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords are his signature tricks. Others like the young boy, a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He plays the trick of going fishing because that's his character setting. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to accompany the performance and amuse the audience. (Xingxing, 2019)

The show of Kylin Songzi (麒麟送子), which indicates good luck and peace, marks the end of the whole performance. Tuotou lies down flat, the young boy riding on his waist like a living lion. Mr. Plaster and young master raise their waists with Yupo dancing Yangko behind. Fisherman uses his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance. (Xingxing, 2019)

As a renowned fair, Miliangtun Village Stilts is characterized by risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as Yasha Searches the Sea, Su Qin Carries Swords, squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. (Xingxing, 2019)

The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. Stilt-walkers control the balance with their waists. They must bend their knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. The upper body and their feet must be coordinated, and swing from side to side to ensure the balance when stepping on the wooden stilts. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing. (Xingxing, 2019)

There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair, which will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. As the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts stands out among the stilt fairs and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. It is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny, which is divided into lead in, head stilts command, and separation performance, forming into a fixed set of performance routines after long-term drills since the establishment. Miliangtun Village Stilts has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks. (Sun Miao, 2018)

====Terms and Expressions====

Miliangtun (village name) 米粮屯

stilts 高跷

intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产

folk dance 民间舞蹈

Toutou 陀头

Laozuozi 老坐子

young boy 小二哥

young master 公子

Mr.Plaster 药先生

Choupo 丑婆

fisherman渔翁

Yupo 渔婆

wood-cutter 柴翁

handsome and ugly drum-players 俊鼓和丑鼓

handsome and ugly gong-players 俊锣和丑锣

====Questions====

1. Where does Miliangtun Village Stilts originate?

2. How many years of history does Miliangtun Village Stilts have?

3. How many roles in Miliangtun Village Stilts?

4. When was Miliangtun Village Stilts listed as the intangible cultural heritage?

5. How long is the shortest and the longest stilts?

====Answers====

1. Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing.

2. More than 250 years.

3. 13.

4. In 2006.

5. The shortest stilt is two feet long, and the longest reaches over five feet.

====References====

Huo Linmo 霍淋漠. (2018). ''高碑店市河头村高跷会考察与研究'' [Investigation and research on stilts fair in Hetou Village, Gaobeidian City]. Hebe: Hebei University 河北大学.

Sun Miao 孙淼. (2018). "一跷多艺": 胜芳高跷会的舞体表征与比较研究 ["Multi-skills with one stilt": A comparative study of the dance style of Shengfang stilt fair]. ''长江丛刊'' [Yangtze River Series] (24)18.

Xingxing 邢星. (2019). 米粮屯高跷 [Miliangtun Village Stilts]. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%B1%B3%E7%B2%AE%E5%B1%AF%E9%AB%98%E8%B7%B7%E4%BC%9A/12762743?fr=aladdin

非物质文化遗产米粮屯高跷 [Intangible cultural heritage Miliangtun Village Stilts] (2019). https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1643344511003907548&wfr=spider&for=pc

--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chinese Lion Dancing - Ding Daifeng 丁代凤 202070080583 MTI英语笔译==

===Introduction===

Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of good fortune. However, there was no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,77)

When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.

There are a number of stories about the origin of lion dance. Here is one of the sayings. During the Ming Dynasty, it was said that a monster always damaged crops in Guangdong province at the end of the year. Local people called it "Nian". In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.(Zhang Guobin 2019,157)

In lion dance, lions are made of colorful cloth strips, and each lion is usually performed by two people, one handling the head and the other moving the body and tail. Under the music of gongs and drums, performers dress up as lions and make various forms of lion movements. The lion dance is an art which combines martial arts, dance and music together. Originating in the Han Dynasty, lion dance has prevailed among Chinese people and spread throughout all over China since the Tang Dynasty. There are mainly two kinds of lion dance in China: northern lion dancing and southern lion dancing.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

===Northern lion dancing===

The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur, and even the pants and shoes of performers are the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance is performed by two people.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

===Southern lion dancing===

Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom(AD 221-263). Guan Gong lion performs bravely, Zhang Fei lion's action is rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion is calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing, dancers use different "Ma Bu" or horse stances, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

Dancers usually perform the traditional custom of “Cai Qing”, literally meaning "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming. People use lettuces as greens and hang them with red envelopes. The lion dancers perform in front of the greens with hesitation, then finally jump up and eat the lettuces in one gulp. (Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)

In recent years, in order to maintain the characteristics of the traditional Chinese lion dance, the southern lion dancing and the northern lion dancing complement each other and improve together. (Liu Xing 2019,39)

===Terms and Expressions===

Western Regions 西域

mount 坐骑

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

gong 锣

northern lion dancing 南狮

southern lion dancing 北狮

colorful silk ball 绣球

wooden stakes 木桩

spiritual resemblance神似

Liu Bei lion 刘备狮

Guan Gong lion 关公狮

Zhang Fei lion 张飞狮

sworn brothers 结义兄弟

horse stances 马步

Cai Qing 采青

lettuces 生菜

===Questions===

1. How long is the history of lion dance in China?

2. Why did people gradually accept lion as a sacred animal?

3. Why did people use lion dance to celebrate the New Year?

4. What is the main difference between southern lion dancing and northern lion dancing?

5. What is the center of southern lion dancing?

6. How many colors are there in the heads of southern lions? And what are they?

7. What is “Cai Qing”? And what do you know about “Cai Qing”?

===Answers===

1. It is with a history of about 2000 years.

2. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.

3. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.

4. The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion, but southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance.

5. It is in southern China’s Guangdong province.

6. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow.

7. It means "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming.

===References===

Liu Xing刘兴.(2019). 从文化结构看舞龙舞狮运动的现代化发展[Modern Development of Dragon and Lion Dance from the Perspective of Cultural Structure]. 体育师友Sports Teachers and Friends 42(04): 37-39.

Yu Zhaojie于兆杰.(2008).中国舞狮的起源及其发展演变[The Origin and Development of Lion Dance in China]. 搏击. 武术科学Wushu Science (06): 75-76.

Zhang Guobin张国斌.(2019).中国传统舞龙舞狮运动历史文化探索及传播研究[Research on the Historical and Cultural Exploration and Dissemination of Chinese Traditional Dragon and Lion Dance]. 散文百家Prose Hundred (10): 157-158.

Zhang Yanqing张延庆.(2003). 中国舞狮的起源与文化演变[Origin and Cultural Evolution of Lion Dancing in China]. 体育文化导刊Sports Culture Guide (11): 77-78.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Literature, Tang-Song - Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉 202070080584 英语笔译==
===A. The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===
[[File:Tang Song Ba Da Jia.jpg]]

===Brief Introduction of The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===

The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the Ancient Prose Movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the Ancient Prose Movement in the Song Dynasty. Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Among the "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe), Su Xun is their father and Su Shi is the older brother.Su Shi, together with Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong,was the student of Ouyang Xiu. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25)

In a word, they all advocated prose and opposed parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their successive waves of innovation of ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)

'''1. Han Yu'''
[[File:Han Yu.jpg]]

Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was a native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as "The Decline of Eight Generations" by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasties. Han Yu was called "Han Liu" with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu's poems as "Du poem Han pen" by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as "The Article Giant" and "Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations" with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory.(Hou Benta 2014, 135)

Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)

'''2. Liu Zongyuan'''
[[File:Liu Zongyuan.jpg]]

Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong, now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong", " Mr. Hedong ", as well as "Liu Liuzhou" because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Chang'an and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.

He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu", with Liu Yuxi as "Liu Liu", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)

He was a deep-thinking philosopher and great litterateur, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude to writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation.(Zhangjian 2019, 1)

'''3. Ouyang Xiu'''
[[File:Ouyang Xiu.jpg]]

Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the "Liu Yi scholar", which means that he had ten thousand volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk man alone. He was born in Mianzhou, now Mianyang city in Sichuan province, whose hometown is Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji'an city in Jiangxi province.

Ouyang Xiu's poem, Ci and prose were all the crown of that time. His poem was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style, which stresses on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was one of his representatives.

Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu's ancient prose, and pioneered the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, he not only drove away the old style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation by virtue of his own unique style and high talent. He has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height.(Hou Benta 2014, 136)

'''4. Su Xun'''
[[File:Su Xun.jpg]]

Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. At the age of 19, he married Mrs. Cheng. Later he determined to study hard at the age of 27. After a decade of hard work, he made huge progress in his academic field.

Su Xun was a man full of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world", and to "apply to the present". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Owing to his great understanding of social reality, he was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot.

'''5. Su Shi'''
[[File:Su Shi.jpg]]

Su Shi, with a fame as "Dongpo Jushi", was a native in Meishan in Sichuan. He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty.

Su Shi was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China". He was regarded as one of the most outstanding men in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. He was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area,.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)

Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage.(Zhangjian 2019, 1) Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called "Su Men Four bachelors".

'''6. Su Zhe'''
[[File:Su Zhe.jpg]]

Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou, now Sichuan province. In the the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), Su Zhe, together with his brother Su Shi, climbed jinshi branch.

Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He performed well in politics and history. In his political works such as The New Theory and the Six States, he mostly discussed world affairs. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode, such as his work the "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)

'''7. Wang Anshi'''
[[File:Wang Anshi.jpg]]

Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo. He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province.

Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature should aim to serve the society first. That means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary opinions of enlightenment of political decrees for world use.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)

'''8. Zeng Gong'''
[[File:Zeng Gong.jpg]]

Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng", including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.

Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text.(Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple with little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments such as the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In those works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.

'''9. Comparison between the Ancient Prose Movement and Renaissance'''

Although there were seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the middle ancient period of their history respectively. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their cultures.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)

Comparison in ideology:

The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.(Wang Yaping 2001, 8) Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.

Comparison in writing style:

The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient prose, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of in Tang and Song Dynasties studied the simple language style of the Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)

Comparison in literary form:

The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the Six Dynasties, but also laid a good foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language.(He Lei 2017, 159) Although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theories and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said: "Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)

===B. Terms and Expressions===
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters 唐宋八大家

Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties 《唐宋八大家文钞》

Ancient Prose Movement 古文运动

parallel prose 骈文

The Decline of Eight Generations 文起八代之衰

The Article Giant 文章巨公

Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations 百代文宗

Han Changli Collection 《韩昌黎集》

External collection 《外集》

The Teacher's Theory《师说》

Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties 先秦两汉时期

writing in classical Chinese 文言文

feudal provincial of Liuzhou 柳州刺史

official supervisor of imperial censor 监察御史

Liu He Dong Colloection 《柳河东集》

Northern Song Dynasty 北宋

a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions 金石遗文一千卷

Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties 三代

the crown of that time 一时之冠

Southern Tang Dynasty 南唐

Yu Feng 余风

The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong 《欧阳文忠公文集》

the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement北宋诗文革新运动

Heng Lun 《衡论》

Duke Jingguo 荆国公

The Book to the Emperor 《上皇帝书》

Dongpo Jushi 东坡居士

Ci writer 词人

Unconstrained Ci School豪放派

literary and artistic attainments 文学艺术造诣

the first all-round talent in ancient China 中国古代第一全才

Su Men Four bachelors 苏门四学士

the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council 《上枢密韩太尉书》

The New Theory《新论》

On the Six Kingdoms 《六国论》

Ode 赋

The Ode to Ink bamboo 《墨竹赋》

Seven Zengs of Nanfeng 南丰七曾

the doctrine before the text先道后文

the Book to Ouyang She Ren 《上欧阳舍人书》

the Book to Bachelor Cai 《上蔡学士书》

the Six Dynasties 六朝

===C. Questions===
1.Who are the pioneers of the Ancient Prose Movement?

2.Which kind of prose they advocate in the Ancient Prose Movement?

3.Do you know any representative work of Liu Zongyuan?

4.Why Ouyang Xiu is called "Liu Yi Scholar"?

5.What’s the relationship among Su Xun, Su Shi and Su Zhe?

6.Who are the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng"?

7.Do you know any about the Renaissance?

===D. Answers===

1.Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.

2.The prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties.

3.The "Liu He Dong Colloection".

4.Because he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk man alone.

5.Su Xun is the father of Su Shi and Su Zhe and Su Shi is the older brother.

6.Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.

7.The Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.

===References===
Fang Wenben 房本文.(2013).士族兴衰与骈散消长—唐代古文运动发微 [The rise and fall of nobles and parallel prose- The subtleties of the Ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.

Hou Benta 候本塔.(2014). 论唐、宋古文运动中的韩愈与欧阳修 [On Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu in the Tang and Song Dynasties]. 三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Three Gorges University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition) 36(S1):135-137.

He Lei 何蕾.(2017). 中唐古文运动：社会转型背景下的文体之变 [The Ancient Prose Movement in the Middle Tang Dynasty: Stylistic Changes in the Context of social transformation]. 青海社会科学 Qinghai Social Sciences (03):156-162.

Lu Sihong 芦思宏.(2016). 略论中西文学的复古倾向—以唐代古文运动与意大利文艺复兴为例 [On the retro tendency in Chinese and Western Literature -- a case study of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang Dynasty and the Italian Renaissanc].中外文化与文论 Chinese and Foreign culture and literary theory (01):71-81.

Wang Yaping 王亚平.(2001). 论西欧中世纪的三次文艺复兴 [On the three Renaissance in The Middle Ages in Western Europe]. 东北师大学报 Journal of Northeast Normal University (06):1-8.

Zhangjian 张剑.(2019). 唐宋古文运动的文学维度 [The literary dimension of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 10-28(010).

Zhangjian 张剑.(2019). 唐宋古文运动的思想维度 [The ideological dimension of the Ancient Prose movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 08-26(010).

Zhao Kun 赵鲲.(2016). 中国文学中的两大文学变革运动—古文运动与“五四”新文学运动之比较 [A comparison between the two major literary revolutions in Chinese literature - the Ancient Prose Movement and the May 4th New Literary Movement]. 解放军艺术学院学报 Journal of Pla Art Academy (01):113-119.

Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫.(2016). 唐宋八大家论 [On the eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 中华活页文选(教师版) Chinese Loose-leaf Selections (Teachers' edition) (12):25-31.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Music, Instruments, Pipa - Gao Mingzhu 高明珠 - 202070080585 - MTI 英语笔译==
===1. A Brief Introduction===

[[File:1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The structure of Pipa. image from 360Baike. Click[https://image.so.com/view?q=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&src=srp&correct=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&ancestor=list&cmsid=b749b87b72b5c9427d6560a39d41548f&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=0&crn=0&bxn=0&fsn=60&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=247#id=22b2926be2637560e928bbc9318219fb&currsn=0&ps=58&pc=58]for original source.]]

Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. Being made of wood or bamboo, its speaker box takes the shape of half pear with 4 strings on it ,which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing）" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly using the left hand to press the string and the right hand to play. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank the first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020)

===2.The Development of Pipa===

The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: first, the Qu Xiang pipa（curving-neck pipa） was introduced into China in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important musical instrument; In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, turning a breakthrough in timbre and performance technology and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one way to play pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style .(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. Chinese traditional instrument playing style melted in its playing characteristics, and the pipa made great breakthroughs in playing skills and artistic expression and other aspects. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but it had changed from the original plucking to pointing, and the posture of playing changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and skills of pipa performance were more mature, and the playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the range of the audience of pipa performance changed from small to large. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing pipa remained upright. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement of performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so not every class of the group can appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)

===3.Pipa Schools and Their Chracteristics===

The formation of Pipa schools in China was due to the southwards moving of the economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North School and the South School. Later, the North School collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

(1)The Wuxi School

The Wuxi School belongs to the original North School, and is different from the South School in terms of the tremolo. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi School was not as influential as the South School, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

(2)The Pinghu School

The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu School's tremolo of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

(3)The Pudong School

Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both literary and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and so on.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

(4)The Chongming School

The Chongming School also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, The Chongming School pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuance in the slow, the order in the fast, and the soft and lively sound. In the aspect of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

(5)The Shanghai School

This school gathers the characteristics of each school and has its own characteristics. In terms of playing techniques, it has created many new fingering techniques and most of the emotional expressions are characterized by masculinity and unrestraint.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)

===4. Traditional Pipa Music===

Traditional pipa music can be divided into military songs, literary songs and military-literary songs.

Military songs emphasize the playing skills and strength of the right hand. Its style is magnificent, generous and grand. The music focuses on narration being realistic and narrative. It is often narrated continuously according to the development of content and plot. It has a large structure, vivid and colorful plot, and distinct paragraphs.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) The representative repertoires are "Ambush on All Sides(十面埋伏)", "Bury Me High(霸王卸甲)", "Hai Qing Hunting the Swan(海青拿天鹅)", "General Order in the Han Dynasty(汉将军令)".

Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound heart talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to with simple and moving melody or beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset(夕阳箫鼓)", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad(昭君出塞)", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace(汉宫秋月)", "The Lofty Moon(月儿高)", "The Green Lotus(青莲乐府)", "Whisper from Pipa(琵琶语)", "Frontier Songs(塞上曲)" and so on.

Military-literary song is the combination of martial song and literary song. The representative songs are "The Spring Snow(阳春白雪)", "High Mountain and Flowing Water(高山流水)", "Dragon Boat(龙船)", "Flute and Drum at Sunset(夕阳箫鼓)" and so on.

===References===

*360百科 “琵琶”词条. (2020).[The introduction of pipa on 360 Baike website].https://baike.so.com/doc/4922064-5141209.html.2020

*Deng Sijia. 邓思佳 . (2020).中国琵琶流派问题及特征 [Schools and characteristics of Chinese pipa]. ''艺术家'' [Artist](10):56.

*Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying. 周显顺, 张玉莹. (2018). 浅谈琵琶演奏的发展史 [A brief analysis of the development of the playing of pipa]. ''黄河之声''[Voice of the Yellow River] (16):56.

*Cheng Xuange. 成玄歌. (2020). 琵琶不同派别与文曲、武曲的关系——以平湖派和浦东派为例 [The relationship between literary songs and military songs and different schools of pipa -Taking Pinghu School and Pudong School as examples]. ''艺术品鉴''[Art Appreciation] (29):51-52.

===Terms and Expressions===

*弹拨乐器—plucked instruments

*汉化—Chinesization

*套曲—divertimentoes

*游牧民族—nomad tribe

*宫廷乐—court music

*轮指法—tremolo

*音色—timbre

*曲目—repertoire

*并弦—parallel string

*指法—fingering techniques

===Questions===

1、How many stages did pipa go through during its development?

2、What characteristics did pipa have during Wei and Jin dynasties?

3、What changes had been made to pipa during Ming and Qing dynasties?

4、How many schools does pipa have and what are they?

5、Can you list at least 3 representative repertoires of literary songs played by pipa?

===Answers===

1、Four.

2、It still retained its strong western characteristics, and the playing way of it is unchained, heroic and simple.

3、The pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics.

4、Five. They are Wuxi school, Pinghu school, Pudong School, Chongming school andShanghai school.

5、"Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" .

===Terms and Expressions===

==Mythology: Huli-jing - Grosheva, Anna - Student No. 201921080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

=== Huli-jing figure in Chinese mythology and its analogs in Japan and Korea ===

The topic of werewolves in the XXI century is perhaps one of the most discussed and studied. Along with vampires and zombies, the image of werewolves is firmly entrenched in world cinema and literature. However, as a rule, speaking about the motives for the transformation of a person into an animal, most people have information mainly about lycanthropy, that is, about the specific transformation of a person into a wolf (werewolf). At the same time, the theme of werewolves is represented by a fairly large number of transformations of a person not only into a wolf but also into other animals. In Chinese mythology, one of the most popular werewolf myths is the myth of the Huli Jing or werewolf foxes. In the Middle Ages, these myths were very popular and in-demand among writers. But what is the attitude of Huli-Jing in modern China? Are they given a place in modern culture, or do werewolf foxes now sound more like a kind of atavism or a children's fairy tale? (Xu Zhonglin 1992, 57)

[[File:fox.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Nine Tailed Fox by ARIELAkris, image from DeviantArt. Click [https://www.deviantart.com/arielakris/art/Nine-Tailed-Fox-384738575]for original source.]]

'''1. Huli-jing (狐狸精) in China'''

First, we need to recreate the image of the Huli-Jing and what was seen in ancient and medieval China. Most often, the Huli-Jing was presented in the form of not just a young, but extremely beautiful women. Interestingly, the image of werewolf foxes has been known in China since the times of the Xia dynasty and its founder Yu, who married a nine-tailed white fox who lived on Mount Tu. People, especially women, believed that due to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to resist the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty reign. At that time the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not fully eradicated in other parts of China. Probably, a more competent decision in between acolytes area was made to give the werefox woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor. (Kang Xiaofei 2006, 206)

Perhaps the most striking examples of where the changed image of the Huli Jing is found can be called the stories of Pu Songlin about werewolf foxes. It is his stories, where girls are subject to the curse of turning into foxes, that reflect their position as hostages of their own life situations or even fears. The theme of fatal love in the stories of werefoxes appears as a continuous line in Pu Songling tales. This suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their savage ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment. (Pu Song-ling 2008, 187)

Of course, the image of the Huli Jing as a mythological character by the 21st century was constantly supplemented with small details. We can say that most of the works of literature and cinema, in which the werewolf fox was encountered, for the most part, were very strongly romanticized. Remaining in its own way a relatively neutral character, Huli Jing nevertheless gradually becomes one of the most popular characters of many writers and screenwriters, not only in China but also in many other countries. A striking and original example of where the Huli Jing appears is the work of the writer Ken Liu entitled "Good Hunt". The author presents not only a very interesting view of the Huli Jing but also explains why the legendary characters of Chinese mythology are gradually disappearing from the memory of the Chinese people. (Ken Liu 2012, 202.)

In addition to literary works, Huli Jing is quite often encountered in Chinese cinema, as an episodic character or a protagonist. One of the most striking images of a werewolf fox can be considered the film "Painted Skin (畫皮)", where the main character is Huli Jing and must eat men's hearts to maintain her youth and beauty. This film is based on the story of Pu Songling and is one of the key works of cinema and modern Chinese culture, which fully reveals the tragedy of the werewolf fox. Besides, Huli Jing is featured in a fairly large number of Chinese television series, each of which gives its own view of what character Huli Jing should be. (Wikipedia 2020a)

Quite a lot of information about werewolf foxes can be obtained from the TV series "The Legend of the Nine-Tailed Fox" released in 2016. The main interest here is not only a rather vivid description of the Huli Jing, which according to the plot are one family and are forced to seek and return to their place the sacred fruit from the magic garden. This, perhaps, is an attempt to provide an explanation of the true nature of werewolf foxes, who for a long time rushed from good to evil. (Wikipedia 2020b)

To sum up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the ancient Chinese dynasties, the image of werefoxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But further, the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love. The appearance of the Huli Jing, which rushes from good to evil for many years, has been romanticized and transformed, becoming a more positive character, although not devoid of some negative features. (Pu Songling 2008, 141)

'''2. Kitsune (キツネ) in Japan'''

In Japanese folklore, these animals have great knowledge, long life, and magical abilities. Chief among them is the ability to take shapeshift themselves; the fox, according to legend, learns to do this after reaching a certain age (usually a hundred years old, although in some legends it is fifty). Kitsune usually take the form of seductive beauty, a pretty young girl, but sometimes they turn into men. It should be noted that in Japanese mythology there was a mixture of indigenous Japanese beliefs that characterized the fox as an attribute of the god Inari ("Fox-messenger") and the Chinese, who considered foxes to be werewolves, a genus close to demons. Other abilities commonly ascribed to kitsune include the ability to take possession of other people's bodies, to breathe out or otherwise create fire, to appear in other people's dreams, and the ability to create illusions so complex that they are almost indistinguishable from reality. Some of the legends go further, talking about kitsune with the ability to warp space and time, drive people crazy, or take on such inhuman or fantastic forms as trees of indescribable height or the second moon in the sky. (Bathgate 2004, 102)

Kitsunes are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari is sometimes depicted as a fox by himself. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky. A kitsune can have up to nine tails. In general, it is believed that the older and stronger the foxes are, the more tails they have. Some sources even claim that a kitsune grows an extra tail every hundred or thousand years of its life. However, foxes found in fairy tales almost always have one, five, or nine tails. When kitsune are given nine tails, their fur turns silvery, white, or gold. (Bathgate 2004, 96)

'''3. Kumiho (구미호) in Korea'''

Kumiho - (구 "ku" - nine, 미 "mi" - tail, 호 "ho" - fox - "fox with nine tails") is a folklore animal, the fox of which is first mentioned in the era of Gojoseon. According to legends, only a fox that lives for a thousand years can become 구미호. One of her superpowers is transforming into a beautiful girl. Although in myths there are also references to the becoming of a charming young man. In this form, the mythical animal fell in love with the opposite sex, and then ate their liver (according to some beliefs, and the heart). Why exactly the liver? We can say that the liver contains human energy, that is, we eat and receive the energy that our liver stores. In a later period, Kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever. Kumiho can transform into a human if one of three conditions is met: she refrains from eating corpses and killing people for a thousand days; the person who recognized her as Kumiho when she is in human form will keep this secret for ten years; Kumiho will eat the liver of thousands of men over a thousand years (if this does not happen, it will disintegrate into many small bubbles); the first condition (then reduced to a hundred days) is sometimes added to the offer of help to any person who will need it. ( Johnson 1974, 37).

===Terms and Expressions===

Shapeshifter – 成精

Creature –生物

Seductive –诱人的

Damnation –诅咒

Metaphor –隐喻

Ascribe –属性

Indigenous –土着

Deity – 反面人物

Liver – 肝脏

===References===

*Bathgate, Michael 迈克尔·巴斯盖特 (2004). The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Folklore: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities. 狐狸在日本宗教和民间传说中的手工艺：变身者，转变和重复. // Routledge. -2004. - 190.

*Johnson T. W. 约翰逊 (1974). Far Eastern Fox Lore 远东狐狸传说 // Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 33. No.1. 亚洲民间传说研究，第 33.第一. - 1974. - 35–68.

*Pu Song-ling 蒲松龄. (2008). Fox charm. Monks-wizards. 狐狸的魅力. 僧侣向导. // Eastern literature 东方文学. – 2008. - 280.

*Kang Xiaofei 康小飞. (2006). The cult of the fox: Power, gender, and popular religion in late imperial and modern China. 狐狸的崇拜：帝国晚期和近代中国//Columbia University Press 哥伦比亚大学出版社的权力，性别和大众宗教. – New York 纽约, 2006. – 269.

*Ken Liu 刘坚. (2012). Good Hunting 狩猎愉快.// Strange Horizons 奇怪的地平线. - 2012. - 431.

*Xu Zhonglin. 徐忠林. (1992). Creation of the Gods 上帝的创造.// Translated by Gu Zhizhong 顾志忠译. – Beijing 北京, 551.

*Wikipedia 维基百科. (2020a). - Painted Skin (2008 film) 畫皮 (2008年電影) - https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%95%AB%E7%9A%AE_(2008%E5%B9%B4%E9%9B%BB%E5%BD%B1)

*Wikipedia 维基百科. (2020b). - Legend of Nine Tails Fox 青丘狐传说 - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend_of_Nine_Tails_Fox

===Questions===

1. What was the attitude towards the Huli Jing in Ancient China?

2. Can we characterize Kitsune as a positive or negative character?

3. Could Kumiho become human forever?

===Answers===

1. Initially, in ancient China, Huli Jing was perceived in a negative context. Only later, towards the Middle Ages, the attitude towards them changed and people began to perceive them as victims of circumstances.

2. In Japanese mythology, Kitsune was not unambiguously good or bad creatures.

3. In a later period, Kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever.
References ..................

==Chinese Characters - Gu Dongfang 顾东方 - 202070080635 - Interpretation 英语口译==

===Chinese Characters===

===Origin===
[[File:hanzi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|hanzi, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]

Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi (漢字) are one of the earliest forms of written language in the world, dating back approximately five thousand years.According to legend, Chinese characters were invented earlier by Cangjie (c. 2650 B.C.E.), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Fu Hsi. The legend tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called zì—Chinese characters. It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning of civilization, for good and for bad.（Boltz, William G. 2003）

===Evolution of Chinese characters===

Chinese characters from the earliest Chinese hieroglyphs to today’s simple characters have undergone through a very long process of development which can be divided into two periods: ancient writing and modern writing. Associated with these two periods, Chinese characters had experienced several times of evolution into many different script forms. Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC) is the earliest systematic form of Chinese characters inscribed on animal bones and tortoise shells. Then Chinese characters evolved through the bronze script of the Zhou Dynasty (1066–256 century BC), seal scrip in the late Zhou Dynasty and Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), official script in the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) and regular script. Based on pictographs, Chinese characters gradually developed from the form of drawings to strokes and from complex to simple ones.(Wang Xianchun 2002)

===Ancient Chinese characters===

====Oracle bone script====

Oracle bone script (Chinese: 甲骨文, Pinyin: jiăgŭwén) is the inscription on animal bones and tortoise shells of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC). It was first excavated by the local farmers in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province and was sold as a kind of traditional Chinese medicine called “long” (dragon bones).

====Bronze script====

In the “Age of Bronze Ware” of China during the period of Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze ware was cast as a container, and most often as the sacrificial vessels to inscribe great events such as sacrifice, battle results, trade of slaves, etc. in a style just like the oracle bone script. In the Shang Dynasty, the inscriptions on bronze ware had very few characters, the form of which is extremely close to that of the oracle bone script. The size, complexity, formation of the Chinese characters are inconsistent. However, in the Zhou Dynasty, the characters in bronze inscriptions were simpler, and the size and formation were more fixed. The bronze inscriptions looked like drawings but had made significant progress from pictographic forms to block-shaped linear words we use today.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

====Seal script====
Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) begun to be used in Qin State. This script was usually written on bamboo slips and pieces of silk or inscribed on rocks and stones. Owing to the regular and symmetric structure, rounded and graceful lines, it is deemed to be the most beautiful style of characters in ancient China by calligraphers. It is still used for inscribing names on a seal today. There are two kinds of seal script: large or great seal script and lesser or small seal script.The large seal script (Chinese: 大篆, Pinyin: dàzhuàn) is a traditional reference to all types of Chinese writing systems used before the Qin Dynasty. However, due to the lack of research achievements and precision, scholars often avoid the large seal script, instead of using more specified terms to the examples of writing. The large seal script was widely used in many vassal states in the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC).After the Qin State conquered the other six states and established the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), Emperor Qinshihuang unified characters in order to strengthen his control. Based on the Large Seal script and rearranging the variant forms of characters in each state, the unified characters were decreed, called lesser or small seal script (Chinese: 小篆, Pinyin: xiăozhuàn) which was the official style of characters in Qin Dynasty used for all the documents of the government. It was the result of the first extensive simplification and standardization of Chinese characters. Compared with the oracle bone script and bronze script, in the lesser seal script, the forms of characters were simpler, the writing method was consistent, and the character pattern was more orderly.
The Ancient Writing Period, from the earliest known oracle bone script to the development of the seal script, lasted about 1,160 years. And the lesser seal script marked the end of the ancient Chinese characters.（ Wang Enquan 2006)

===Modern characters===
====Clerical script====

After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.（After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.( Wang Enquan 2006)

====Regular script====

Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people for generations even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage.
===Formation of Chinese characters===

====Pictograms====

Contrary to popular belief, pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include 日 (rì) for "sun," 月 (yuè) for "moon," and 木 (mù) for "tree."（Nie Yan 2005)

====Pictophonetic compounds====

Also called semantic-phonetic compounds, or phono-semantic compounds, this category represents the largest group of characters in modern Chinese. Characters of this sort are composed of two parts: a pictograph, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and a phonetic part, which is derived from a character pronounced in the same way as the word the new character represents.Examples are 河 (hé) river, 湖 (hú) lake, 流 (liú) stream, 冲 (chōng) riptide, 滑 (huá) slippery. All these characters have on the left a radical of three dots, which is a simplified pictograph for a water drop, indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water; the right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
====Ideograph ====

Also called a simple indicative, simple ideograph, or ideogram, characters of this sort either add indicators to pictographs to make new meanings, or illustrate abstract concepts directly. For instance, while 刀 (dāo) is a pictogram for "knife," placing an indicator in the knife makes 刃 (rèn), an ideogram for "blade." Other common examples are 上 (shàng) for "up" and 下 (xià) for "down." This category is small, as most concepts can be represented by characters in other categories.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）
====Logical aggregates====

Also translated as associative compounds, characters of this sort combine pictograms to symbolize an abstract concept. For instance, 木 (mu) is a pictogram of a tree, and putting two 木together makes 林 ,meaning forest. Combining 日 (rì) sun and 月(yuè) moon makes 明(míng) bright, which is traditionally interpreted as symbolizing the combination of sun and moon as the natural sources of light.
====Associate transformation====

Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, 考 (kǎo) to verify and 老 (lǎo) old were once the same character, meaning "elderly person," but detached into two separate words. Characters of this category are rare, so in modern systems this group is often omitted or combined with others.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）

Also called phonetic loan characters, this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 (zì), which has lost its original meaning of nose completely and exclusively means oneself, or 萬 (wan), which originally meant scorpion but is now used only in the sense of ten thousand.(Liu Youxin 1998)

===Chinese Characters and the Information Age===

Nowadays, with the continuous development of digitization, Chinese characters have been effectively imported into various electronic media. In a sense, Chinese characters in the electronic age are also facing reform, and there will be more advanced means to promote the role of Chinese characters in the electronic information age, so that they can better serve the public.
Chinese characters are undoubtedly China's most beautiful and valuable asset, representing not only a national spirit, but also the roots of the Chinese nation, the soul of China. As Mr. Yu Guangzhong once said, as long as the soul of Cangjie remains intact, the image, the magnet-like centripetal force, is bound to exist, and the memories and hopes of our ancestors will have a new anchor.（Yi Lixin 2004）

===Terms and expressions===

1.Oracle Bone Inscriptions 甲骨文

2.Bronze Inscriptions 金文

3.Small seal characters 小篆

4.Official script 隶书

5.Regular script 楷书

6.Cursive writing 草书

7.Cang Jie 仓颉

8.Clerical script 楷书

9.Su Shi 苏轼

10. Wang Xizhi 王羲之

11.Ou Yangxun 欧阳询

12.Yan Zhenqing 颜真卿

13.Pictograms 象形

14. Pictophonetic compounds 指事

15.Ideograph 会意

16.Logical aggregates 形声

17.Associate transformation 转注

18.Borrowing 假借

===Questions===
1. How many Chinese characters are there?

2. How many letters are in the Chinese pinyin?

3. How many formations of Chinese characters? What are they?

===Answers===
1. According to the latest statics, there are nearly 91251 Chinese characters recorded .

2. There are 26 letters in Chinese alphabet.

3. Six formations are included in Chinese characters system, and they are Pictograms
Pictophonetic compounds,Ideograph, Logical aggregates, Associate transformation,Borrowing

===References===

1.Wang Xianchun王显春. 汉字的起源[M]. 学林出版社, 2002.

2.Liu Youxin刘又辛. "关于汉字发展史的几个问题(上)." 语文建设 12(1998):34-37.

3.Boltz, William G. 2003. The origin and the development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental series), v. 78. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. ISBN 0940490188

4.Chinese Characters, Chinese Culture and Chinese Mind . Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia, https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/12-Yuxin-Jia-Xuerui-Jia.pdf,2005.

5.Yi Lixin伊立新. 论汉字与中国文化的相互影响[J]. 沈阳建筑大学学报(社会科学版), 2004, 6(001):58-60.

6.Wang Enquan王恩全. 中国汉字的形成及演变规律之考辨[J]. 沈阳农业大学学报(社会科学版), 2006(03):551-553.
7.Nie Yan聂焱. "论汉字造字法的思维模式." 湘南学院学报 03(2005):63-67+81.
--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 12:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Gu dongfang

==Handcraft - Chinese Knots - Guan Qinqing 管钦清 - MTI 英语笔译==
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center>
===A.Chinese Knots===
[[File:Chinese Knots.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Click [https://baike.so.com/doc/1207058-1276830.html]for original source.]]
====1.A Brief Introduction about Chinese Knots====

The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.It originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, to the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft.The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronzes of the Warring States Period.（Li Ku 2016，125）

The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now, Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decorations and aesthetics, which
earned the knot as its name.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002,38）

====2.The Classification of Chinese Knots====

There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）,Good Luck Knot（吉祥
结）,Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）,Sauvastika Knot（万字结）,Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）,Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）,Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）,Caisson Celling Knot（藻井结）,Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.（Li Ku 2016，125）

Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots,which are the Double Coin Knot,the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot.

=====2.1.The Double Coin Knot=====

Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture,politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but value, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. Every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money".（ Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，40）

Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc. （Li Ku 2016，126）

=====2.2.The Good Luck Knot=====

As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and is also one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.
And the knot shape is beautiful,varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.（Wu Hongfang 2004,120）

=====2.3.The Pan Chang Knot=====

Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people. Pan Chang (盘长） is a symbol of the origin of all things, and is one of the most important basic knots. It is
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，44）

====3.The Knitting Method of Chinese Knots====

The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots. The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots, so as to make a group of varied knots.（Xu Xing 2004,46）

The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then determine its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art.（Xu Xing 2004,47）

====4.The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Knots====

Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of
rope and thread.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of
Dragons.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）

Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）

====5.Comparisons between Chinese Knots and Cross Necklaces====

=====5.1.Different Cultural Connotations=====

From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot generally have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace,however, is symbolic of
Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient
Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners.Therefore,such cross
ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,45）

=====5.2.Different Shapes=====

Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have
different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.（Xu Xing 2004,47）

====6.References====

*Li Ku 李库. (2016). 符号学视角下的中国结解读 [The Analysis of Chinese Knots from the Perspective of Semiology ]. ''艺海'' Yi Hai (08) 125-126.

*Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 李立芳，孙建君. (2002). ''民间绳结'' [Folk Knots]. Wuhan: Hubei Fine Arts Publishing House 湖北美术出版社.

*Xu Xing 许星. (2004). 路论中国结 [On the Chinese Knots]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (02) 46-47.

*Wu Hongfang 邬红芳. (2004). 中国结的意象美学特征 [The Rhetorical-Beauty of Chinese Knots]. ''装饰'' Decoration (09) 120-121.

*Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian王眯珠,孙荪,曲洪建. (2014). 怀旧心理与创新意识对中国结的影响分析[The Analysis of the Impact on Chinese Knots from Reminiscence and Consciousness of Innovation ]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (11) 43-50.

===B. Terms and Expressions===

Double Coin Knot 双钱结

Good Luck Knot 吉祥结

Chinese Button Knot 纽扣结

Sauvastika Knot 万字结

Oxalis Knot 酢浆草结

Pan Chang Knot 盘长结

Round Brocade Knot 团锦结

Caisson Celling Knot 藻井结

Cross Knot 十字结

Ping Knot 平结

tie the knot 永结同心

luck money 压岁钱

the bishop's identity 主教职权

===C. Questions===

1. What is the Chinese knot?

2. Do you know the names of the main Chinese knots? What are they?

3. What do "绳" and "结" mean in Chinese culture?--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:04, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.

2.There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot,Good Luck Knot,Chinese Button Kno,Sauvastika Knot,Oxalis Knot,Pan Chang Knot,Round Brocade Knot,Caisson Celling Knot,Cross Knot and Ping Knot.

3.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of "knot", which means reunion and happiness.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 07:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Literature, Chinese Mythology, Guirou, Barthelemy, 201921080010, Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

[[File:Chinese Mythology.jpg|thumb|right|Panku]]

===Introduction===

The Chinese’s life is full of mythological traditions such as, the creation of universe, science, literature, philosophy, dragons, tortoises, phoenixes, unicorns, birds, and flowering fruit trees etc. This myth is characterized by the interaction of the pros and cons, yin and yang, good and evil, light and dark, male and female, heaven and earth, strong and weak and so forth. Panku was an important figure in Chinese mythology, the first living being and the creator of universe in some versions of Chinese mythology (Su Shuyang 2010, 2). In world mythology; every peoples have it own myths, different fairy tales, but there is some similarities in common.

===A. Panku Created the World===

In the beginning, the world didn’t exist; there wasn’t sky, earth, water, animals, birds, plants, human, in other word, the universe was empty. The force of universe was concentrated inside a mysterious egg. This egg, after growing many years, it became a big form of ball and finally gave birth to Panku. Panku, who was deeply sleeping in peace in his eggshell for eighteen thousand years, finally awaken by the chaos of the exterior movement and tried to calm down the chaos. Therefore, the sky and the earth were created. His body was well-formed with giant muscular and the size of his body was about ninety thousand li (about thirty thousand miles), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).

At that moment the sky and the earth was very close and Panku couldn’t fully stand on his limbs, then Panku pushed the sky with his two hands to farther away from the sky. As time was passing, the sky and earth become farther from each other and the size of Panku was increasing within. The size of Panku became enormous, 90,000 "li" (45,000 kilometer) was the high distance between the sky and the earth, that is why today we talk about “ Nine- Layer Sky.” For many centuries Panku pushed the sky with all the forces of his body to avoid the chaos, hence, he cried for help but no one helped him because he was alone in the universe. He struggled for ten thousand years until the sky and earth were completely separated into the forces of yin (dark) and yang (light). Slowly, he became weaker and older, and then he felt down on the ground and his body became a mighty crash. Thus, his right eye became the moon and his left eye became the sun; his head and limbs became mountains; his blood vessels became seas and rivers, his flesh became fertile lands; his hair became trees, grass, flowers; his teeth and bones became treasures (gold, metals, silver, copper...); his sweat and tear became rain; his voice became thunder and lightning and his breath became winds and clouds. Finally; he finished his work, Panku, the creator of the world was dead and left behind him a beautiful landscape (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).

===B. NuWa Created Human Beings===

[[File:Picture 2.jpg|thumb|right|Fushi and Nuwa]]

Nuwa, was created out of earth from Panku flesh, was a goddess in Chinese mythology or viewed as old grandmother with a body of snake and human face. She was the creator and ancestor of human beings who appeared in the world after Pangu’s death (Su Shuyang 2010, 5).

As she was the only human living beings in the world, by the passing time, she felt lonely and decided to create human to her image in order to feel more comfortable to her world. Thus, she was seated down thinking about her new project of creating human beings and finally she got an idea. Then she created human beings by kneading mud with human forms and then these “mud figures” became alive. They started walking, speaking, singing, dancing, laughing and endowed with a human beings capacity. Nuwa was very happy with her news creatures who surrounding him by crying our Mum. Then, she continued to create days and nights during a long period until she got tired. Hence, they were spread out everywhere; on the mountains, on the hills, near the rivers, on the straight spaces etc. During a long period of years, Nuwa and her creatures were living together without any particular distinction about man and woman and any marriage. As time was passing; people were getting old and dying one after other, so, Nuwa started to worry about her offspring, what the world will be after all the men would have died. Nuwa then divided men and women and taught them marriage and how to reproduce themselves between couples in order the lineage of mankind will never end. She gave her best wishes and advises to human beings, and since then, people continue to marry and give birth.(Su Shuyang 2010, 5, 6).

===C. Fushi Taught the People===

In Chinese mythology, it is generally said that the rulers were half-gods and half humans and they could change their shapes of state, either in animal or in human being. According to Chinese myths; the rulers didn’t die, when their time on the earth expired they ascended to the heavens to have a rest. Fushi was the first who taught to people how to survival on the earth such as: hunting, using fire, writing etc. In some stories Fushi was the husband of Nuwa, whereas in some other it wasn’t. Anyway they are an important figures of Chinese civilization (Irene Dea Collier,2001, 33).

Fushi noticed that the new world (people) couldn’t support to the difficulties of the life and decided to help them thanks to his supernatural powers. He taught them how to make a fish net by twisting plants fibers and form ropes. With these ropes, he wove a fish net to fish fishes in water and feed people, and with these ropes also people could across mountain peaks to search food. Then, before people were eating raw meat or fish but Fushi showed them how to use fire by twirling two willow sticks together. Moreover, Fushi taught them many things including agriculture, breeding, security, music, healing and many else. As time was passing; Fushi getting old, and he knew that he could not live for ever , then he decided to create a system of writing "trigrams", in order people can learn and remember about his teachings for better life. He designed some kind of marks onto turtle shells, bamboo sticks and animal bones which became later words and numbers. This "trigrams" was also a mean to interpret future and consult oracle about the right ways to follow (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35, 36).

Finally, Fushi gave his last gift (music) in order people can live in harmony and peace after him. So, Fushi taught them how to make musical instrument and use it, a "pipa" (lute).That is why, music has a great importance in Chinese history. Each time we play music, it reminds us to Fushi great teachings. Fushi’s time took end on the earth and finally he ascended to heavens hoping that his disciples (humans) live in peace (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 39).

===D. Water War===

Territorial conquest or extension of a territory was a preoccupation of each ruler since the beginning of the world and still now is one of the sources of conflicts in the world. So, Gong, god of water fought against Zurong, god of fire to extend his territory. Historically, both have terrible tempers and described as a very big giants with different shapes, Gong shown with a snake’s body and a human face with red hair. Meanwhile Zurong shown with a massive human body with broad shoulders, red skin, and a red beard (Irene Dea Collier 2001,44).

Gong poked the earth with bouts of rain and floods which caused damages included on people, houses, animals, trees and many others living beings. People and others gods asked him to stop destroying but Gong remained pitiless and severe to their inquiries. Zurong, god of fire who ruled the earth in peace before Gong, finally intervened to stop him. So Zurong challenged Gong to regain the control of the earth. Firstly, they started to wrestle on the sky for many days, as both of them were using their supernatural powers, the sky shook with thunder, and lightning flashed across the sky. Then, they got down in the earth to continue fighting but fortunately Gong and his army were defeated and all the people and gods rejoiced Gong’s defeat. Since then, the world is full of conflicts and insecurities (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48, 49).

In summary, like many mythologies, Chinese mythology has been recorded in oral form in literature from various regional and cultural traditions. China is the home of many mythological traditions which involves the creation of world, gods, deities, supernatural powers, culture, people, houses, cooking writing, ancestors etc.

===E. Terms and Expressions===

Chinese Mythology 中国神话

Panku 盤古

Yin/Yang 陰陽 / 阴阳

Nuwa 女媧

Fushi 伏羲

Water War 水战

===F. Questions===

1. Why an egg a good symbol for the beginning of the world?

2. Why Nuwa decided to create human beings?

3. What did Fushi taught to people?

4. What was the cause of Gong and Zurong’s war and who won?

===G. Answers===

1. Because egg is the symbol of life and many creatures are born from the eggs, even its physical form is round like the world and it contains necessary elements to create a life.

2. Firstly, for companionship and secondly to guarantee her offspring by teaching them the importance of marriage and how to feed and raise their children. She also wanted to humans to live independently without help of god.

3. He taught to people how to live conveniently such as: fishing, how to make fire, cooking food and meat with fire, oracle consulting, and how to make and use lute.

4. Gong wanted to extend his territory which resulted to water damage and Zurong intervened and defeated him by wrestling.

===References===

* Su Shuyang. (2010).''CHINA: Insight Traditions and Culture''.(Youth Edition). DOLPHIN BOOKS China International Publishing Group. (2010)-2-4-5-6.

* Irene Dea Collier. (2001). "Chinese Mythology". Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. (2001)-33-35, 36-39-44-48-49.

* https://pic.17qq.com/uploads/ijbphegbibz.jpeg

* https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Pangu-lifting-heaven-picture.jpg--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gods and Immortals - Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587 英语笔译==

===Chinese gods and immortals===

====Chinese mythology system====

Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, p. 71 )

Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, p.4)

The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, pp. 34-40)

Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, pp. 27-28)

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, p37)

====神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān====

Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)

There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)

====Eight immortals====

The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 40-45)

The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (張果老), Lan Caihe (藍采和), Li Tieguai (李鐵拐), Zhongli Quan (鍾離權), Han Xiangzi (韓湘子), Cao Guojiu (曹國舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50)

The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙過海，各顯神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)

===Terms and Expressions===

immortals 仙

mythology 神话，神话学

cosmology 宇宙论，宇宙观

monolithic 整体（式）的

the Battle of Zhuolu 涿鹿之战

pantheistic 泛神论的

polytheistic 多神论的

Three Pure Ones 三清

anthropomorphic 人格化的

tutelary 守护神

deity 神

Buddha 佛

Shakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Amitabha 阿弥陀佛

Amitāyus 无量寿佛

celestial 天的

Bodhisattva 菩萨

Pure Land 极乐世界

vessels 法器

Covert Eight Immortals 暗八仙

Taoist 道家的，道士

===Questions===

1. What are the topics of the Ancient mythology?

2. What are the differences among shén, dì and xiān?

3. What do the Eight immortals represent respectively?

===Answers===
1.The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths，which can be divided into four categories--the creation myths, myths of heroes, myths about Tribal war, and myths about human and nature.

2. shén and dì corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". The latter term 仙 xiān , refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".

3.Lü Dongbin, He Xiangu, Zhang Guolao, Lan Caihe, Li Tieguai, Zhongli Quan, Han Xiangzi and Cao Guojiu are representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble respectively.

===References===

Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng. (2014). ''Marxism and Religion.'' Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.

Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). ''Handbook of Chinese Mythology''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bai Yang. (1987). ''Chinese Huamn History''. Time Literature & Art Press.

Olson, Stuart Alve. (2002). ''Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun''. Bear & Company.

Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism

Hu Yanan.(2020). ''From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty'' [D].Harbin Normal University.

Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). ''An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality''. Sussex Academic Press.

Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. (1987). ''A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals''. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press.

Little, Stephen (2000). ''Taoism and the Arts of China.'' The Art Institute of Chicago.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588 英语笔译==

===Classical Prose Movement of late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty===

====Introduction====

“The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty in China, also known as the Classical Prose Movement, is a movement with the style reform as its surface and Confucianism Renaissance as its depth.” (Li Shufang 2003, 1-3) The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty. This movement took clarity and precision as priorities, and it stood against the florid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular starting from the Han Dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and was criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content. Therefore, Han Yu, together with Liu Zongyuan, launched this movement to make a difference so that they can revive Confucianism and promote their political thoughts. This movement had a tendency to follow the spirit of pre-Qin prose rather than to imitate it directly. People used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 1)

====Development====

The Classical Prose Movement went through three stages. The first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan who were not only writers but also theorists, forming the basis of the movement. Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement and were keen to teach young people so that the movement could achieve further development and then revive the Confucianism. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-18)
[suggestion:(Here, "Both" can be replaced by "They both".)Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement……]

However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. Furthermore, the government only allowed people to use pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 59-61)

After that, Ouyang Xiu once again advocated the classical prose in the Song Dynasty. As many people were dissatisfied with the florid piantiwen style, the Classical Prose Movement reached another peak during that period. This movement is consequently also called the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. (Song Juan 2005, 62-65)

====Representatives====

'''1.Han Yu'''

Han Yu (768–824), courtesy name Tuizhi, is also known for his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. He was born in present-day Mengzhou, Henan, he was a Chinese prose writer, poet, and philosopher who influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Due to his influence on the Chinese literary tradition, he is described as “Comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe”. Meanwhile, he is often considered to be among China’s finest prose writers. Ming Dynasty scholar Mao Kun ranked him first in the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song"，and Su Shi, another Chinese poet, once praised that “His prose reversed the literary decline of eight dynasties”. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-17)

Han Yu wrote a large volume of works, which includes over 700 poems and nearly 400 proses. He is especially famous for his ''On Teachers'', which says “A teacher is one who passes on the truth, imparts knowledge and solves puzzles”. This persuasive prose is short but well structured, and it has a strong appeal to people, which also has a positive impact on youth education. (Fan Aiju, Li Wei 2014, 124-125)

'''2.Liu Zongyuan'''

Liu Zongyuan (773–819), courtesy name Zihou, is also known by his art names He Dong Xian Sheng or Liu He Dong, was a Chinese litterateur, philosopher, politician and poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty. And Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, they were called Han Liu. Besides that, he has been regarded as one of the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song”, which also includes Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu. Liu's best-known travel pieces are the ''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou''. And one of his most famous poems is "Jiangxue". (Yang Shengli 2020, 42-44)

'''3.Ouyang Xiu'''

Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), courtesy name Yong Shu, is also known by his art names Zuiweng and Liu Yi Jushi. He was a Chinese essayist, historian, poet, calligrapher and even a politician of the Song Dynasty. Being a much-celebrated writer, both among his contemporaries and in subsequent centuries. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56)

Ouyang Xiu was in charge of the writing of the ''New Book of Tang'', and he also wrote the ''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' independently, the only book in the Twenty-Four Histories to have been written in private by a single author. As a poet, he was a noted writer of both the shi and ci genres. But it was his prose writings like ''Zuiweng Tingji'' that won him the greatest acclaim. The poem's most well-known line is: The Old Toper cares not for the wine, his interest lies in the landscape, an idiom still used in modern Chinese to describe someone with an ulterior motive. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56-57)

Except for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu, there were many other representatives of this movement. For example, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong and Wang Anshi also made great contributions to the Classical Prose Movement. Considering their influences, they were also listed as Eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 82-83)

====Masterworks====

Under the influence of the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty, there appeared a large volume of masterpieces, which have a far-reaching influence on later ages. Except for the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu, other works like ''Shang Zhongyong'' written by Wang Anshi, ''On Jia Yi'' and ''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' by Su Shi, were also considered the representative works of this movement. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 73-78)

====Influence====

The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty is a milestone during the development of Chinese ancient prose, it has a profound influence on the later schools of literature like Tang-Song School in the Ming Dynasty and Tong Cheng school in the Qing Dynasty. Besides that, it also helped to lay a solid foundation of prose in China and acted as a fine example for later scholars. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 85-86)

====Terms and Expressions====

The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty 唐宋八大家

Classical Prose Movement 古文运动

''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou'' 《永州八记》

''On Teachers'' 《师说》

''New Book of Tang'' 《新唐书》

''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' 《新五代史》

''Zuiweng Tingji'' 《醉翁亭记》

''Shang Zhongyong'' 《伤仲永》

''On Jia Yi'' 《贾谊论》

''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' 《赤壁赋》

====Questions====

1. Who were the first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement?

2. What does the Classical Prose Movement mean?

3. What's political and religious purposes of the Classical Prose Movement?

====Answers====

1. The first promoters of this movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.

2. The Classical Prose Movement refers to the cultural reform movement which promotes Gu Wen and opposes pianwen in late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty.

3. The reason why Confucious scholars promoted this movement is that they wanted to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Besides that, this movement is also an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in the central government.

====References====

* Fan Aiju, Li Wei 范爱菊, 李伟. (2014). 唐代文豪韩愈的文学造诣 [The literary achievements of Han Yu in the Tang Dynasty] 兰台世界 ''Lantai World'' (21) 124-125.

* Li Shufang. (2003). 古文运动的社会背景 [The Social Background of Sport of Ancient Chinese Prose]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学 (12) 1-3.

* Nie Yongqing 聂永清. (2007). 重读欧阳修 [Rethinking of Ouyang Xiu] 当代江西 ''Dang Dai Jiangxi'' (02) 56-57.

* Qian Dongfu 钱东父. (1979). 唐宋古文运动 [''The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty''] Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

* Song Juan 宋娟. (2005). 古文运动、科举与“唐宋八大家” [Movement of the Ancient Chinese Prose, Imperial Examination and “Eight Great Writers in Tang and Song Dynasty”]. Mudanjiang: Mudanjiang Normal University 牡丹江师范学院 (02) 62-65.

* Yang Shengli 杨胜利. (2020). “河东先生”柳宗元 [Liu Zongyuan:He Dong Xian Sheng]. 支部建设 Zhi Bu Jian She (08) 42-44.

* Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (1996). 唐宋八大家论 [Talking of Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song]. Shanghai: Zhong Hua Book Company 中华书局 (06) 35-38.
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 06:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The tradition of Red Envelope and Lucky Money - HA, THI THU HANG - 201921080008 - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==

[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets-design.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Red Enverlop]]

===The Chinese Red Envelope and Lucky Money Tradition===

In Chinese and other East and Southeast Asian societies, Red Envelopes, also called Red Packets, Lucky Money, or ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ) in Chinese, ''Li shi'' / ''Lìxì'' in Vietnamese are popular monetary gift given during holidays or special occasions or festivals such as weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc in China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and some other Asian countries, especially widely seen during the Lunar New Year Festival. During the Lunar New Year, the adult, parents and grandparents gift with the red envelops for kids, which have money stuffed into. It is a traditional way to wish good luck and share blessings.

The Lucky Money tradition began in the Han Dynasty. Rather than real money, they were small collectibles in the form of coins to ward off evil spirits. Auspicious phrases and symbols were engraved onto the surface. "worldwide peace" ( 天下太平 / ''Tiān xià tài píng''), “longevity and fortune” ( 千秋万岁 / ''Qiān qiū wàn suì''), dragons and phoenixes were common.

These coins were tied together with red string. The practice transitioned to be wrapped in Red Paper and now, put into Red Envelopes.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Legend====

In China, during the Qin Dynasty, the elderly would thread coins with a red string. There was a kind of little demon called ''Sui'' ( 祟 ) in ancient times. Whenever it is on New Year's Eve, it will appear quietly, touching the head of a sleeping child. The child who was being touched will be scared and cry, and also will have a headache. Therefore, in order to prevent against the sui, people in the past did not dare to sleep on New Year's Eve, and all the lights were called ''Shou Sui'' ( 守祟 ).

One tale of the folklore, once upon a time, there was a couple who were over 50 years old had just given birth to a little boy. In that Lunar New Year, 8 fairies visited their house and knew that there would be a monster coming to hurt him. To protect the baby, the 8 faires transformed into 8 coins which were then wrapped in red cloth and laid beside the boy when he was sleeping. Thanks to these coins, which were the fairies, the boy was unharmed by the monster. The old couple was so thankful and gradually everyone in the village knew about the stories. Since then, when Lunar New Year comes, people will give children "red paper wrapped copper money" with a belief that the money will protect children from being harmed.

There are also other legends about this custom related to the son of Yang Guifei of the Tang Dynasty - China and the Qin Dynasty. But in general, the New Year's blessing of the lucky money all originates with the meaning of giving happy money to children, wishing them to grow up their money so they can pass the new age with good things and luck.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Tradition====

The Chinese custom of Lucky Money is called ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ). Chinese people really like red, so the Lucky Money is always red, symbolizing luck and happiness. The Red Envelope is called ''Yāsuìqián'' ( 压岁钱 ), which means "suppressing ghosts money". Those who receive a Red Envelope are wished another safe and pea. Sending Red Envelopes is a way to send good wishes another safe and peaceful year, and luck (as well as money). The amount of money in the Chinese Lucky Money must avoid the number 4 ( 四 / ''si'') and be sealed - that means no 4, 40, or 400 amounts - as the pronunciation of four in Chinese sounds like the word for death ( 死/ ''si''). However, amounts including the number 8 ( 八 / ''ba'') will bring good luck and prosperity ( 发财 / ''fa'').

There are rules on how to properly receive an Envelope. Traditionally, children would kneel to receive their ''Hóngbāo'' from older family members, and this is still practiced in some areas of China. Red Envelopes are also always given and received with both hands, and should never be opened immediately and in the presence of the present-giver. After receiving the Lucky Money, the children have to put it all under the pillow after about a week to open it. The meaning of this is for the Lucky Money to protect the kids from the bad things that can happen in the new year. This is also the source of the traditional Chinese Lucky Money.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Alipay and WeChat Red Envelope'''

[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets.jpg|300px|thumb|Right|Red Envelope - How much to give who - [[https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]]]]

Moving on from the traditional Red Envelope, in the 21st century, many people exchange digital Red Envelopes instead of the traditional paper ones. These are virtual packets of very real cash, transferred directly to friends' and family's smartphones. Users can even send digital ''Hóngbāo'' to their favorite celebrities using apps such as Alipay, WeChat and the Weibo Red Envelope. WeChat Red Packet is an online money transfer with a colorful message via WeChat (a messaging Chinese app). In recent years, it has become popular among young people to send "Red Envelopes" via WeChat as a greeting. It has become a new way to greet friends or relatives during the Chinese New Year period.

While the tradition centers on children, Red Envelopes are given to friends, family, colleagues and many other relatives - and different amounts of money are customary for each relation. For example, parents and grandparents get the most, but employees and even casual acquaintances can expect a Red Envelope.

====Outside of China====

The similar customs have been adopted throughout Southeast Asia and many other countries with sizable populations of Chinese descent. Each country has different ways of Lucky Money and changes over time, but the basic custom of Lucky Money is to want to send wishes of peace to all relatives and friends in the New Year.

[[File:LunarNewYearinVietnam.jpg|250px|thumb|Right|Lunar New Year: ''Lì xì'' in Vietnam]]
In Vietnam, Lucky Money is called ''Lì xì/Tiền mừng tuổi'' and very typical. On the first day of the Lunar New Year - one of the great holidays of the year, both adults and babies wear new clothes to celebrate the New Year relative. After that, the adults will give Lucky Money to the children with the message of good luck, good care and good study. Today, the tradition of Lucky Money in Vietnam is also expanded in the direction that children give Lucky Money to celebrate the age of grandparents and parents. This is a human custom that is increasingly promoted by the Vietnamese people.

[[File:Otoshidama.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Otoshidama'' in Japan]]
In Japan, Lucky Money is called ''Otoshidama'' (お年玉). Unlike other countries, the amount of Japanese Lucky Money depends on the child's age, the relationship of the family. ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes are usually white in color, not as common in red as other countries. The special thing about the Japanese Red Envelopes is that the envelopes are always sealed, symbolizing the privacy, not packaging. Moreover, the name of the person receiving the Lucky Money will be written on the Red Envelope to show respect for the recipient. The message of each ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes is a wish for a warm, peaceful and lucky New Year.

[[File:Sabae.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''Sabae'' in Korea]]
In Korea, Lucky Money is called ''Sabae''. On the New Year's day, children in traditionally dressed families perform the ritual of bowing to their seniors to show gratitude for birth and nurturing. After this ceremony, the children will receive Lucky Money together with wishes for health and peace in the New Year. The Lucky Money in Korea is more diverse than other countries, not only with money but also gold, pearls, gems, etc.

[[File:Green Envelope-giving.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Green Envelope-giving'']]
The Lucky Money tradition has also crossed cultural and religious boundaries, and ''Green Envelope-giving'' has even become a practice during the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Fitr across Southeast Asia. It is also widely practiced by the Chinese and Southeast Asian diaspora across the world.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Lucky Money 利市/ Lì shì

Red Envelope 红包/ Hóngbāo

Worldwide Peace 天下太平/ Tiān xià tài píng

Longevity and Fortune 千秋万岁/ Qiān qiū wàn suì

Suppressing Ghosts Money/ Suppressing Sui Money 压岁钱/ Yā suì qián

Sui 祟

Shou Sui 守祟

===Questions===

1. Do you know the origin of giving Lunar New Year's Lucky Money to children?

2. Is the Lucky Money tradition exist in other countries than China?

3. What are the rules on giving-receiving Red Envelopes?

4. On what occasions people giving-receiving Red Envelopes?

5. Do you ever receive a Red Envelope? On what occasion?

===Answers===

1. It began in the Han Dynasty and to protect children from being harmed.

2. Yes. It is very polupar in Vietnam (''Lìxì''), Japan (''Otoshidama''), Korea (''Sabae''), and some other Southeast Asian countries.

3. The giving amount of money must avoid the number 4 that sounds like the word of death in Chinese. The children, after receiving the Red Envelope, do not open it immediatedly and in the presence of the present-giver, but have to put it under the pillow after about a week to open it.

4. Red Envelopes are most commonly associated with New Year, but they also turn up as part of many other occasions as a way of sharing good luck and blessings, like births, weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc.

5. Yes. Red Envelope, or Lucky Money, or ''Lìxì'' is very typical in the Lunar New Year in my country Vietnam.

===References===

Red Envelope[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope]

Fefe Ho - Red Pockets[https://chinesenewyear.net/red-pockets/]

Cindy Tang - Red Envelopes/Packets (Hongbao) - Amount, Symbols and How to Give [https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]

Chinese Red Envelope [https://www.travelchinaguide.com/essential/holidays/new-year/red-envelope.htm]--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Calendar, The 24 Solar Terms - He Changqi 何长琦 202070080589 MTI==

===1. The Orgin and Development of The 24 Solar Terms===

"The 24 solar terms" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）

By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature in the Warring States period, the complete 24 solar terms were basically formed. During the Qin and Han dynasties, a complete system was perfected and formed into today's complete 24 Solar Terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）

===2. The Definition and Classification of the 24 Solar Terms===

“The twenty-four solar term” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)

"The 24 solar term" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)

A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)

The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)

===3.Folklore of the 24 Solar Terms===

The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three aspects: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the 24 solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc.

These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of Start of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of Start of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of Start of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan, Zou Yating 2020)

===4.Importance and Values of the 24 Solar Terms===

====4.1 Importance in Ancient Times====

The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people. (Wang Jiahua 2019)

Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is also the most basic function and value of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humans according to natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of the people in ancient times. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were not just a time system, but a much more colourful connotation of life, and an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives. (Wang Jiahua 2019)

For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立)-- the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter-- have always been important festivals in history. At these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival. Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and Tomb Sweeping Festival are known as China's four traditional festivals. (Wang Jiahua 2019)

====4.2 Values in Modern Society====

In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation. (Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020)

It still has its practical values in modern society. Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system with a long history and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations, such as respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

Lastly, the 24 solar terms are not only a time system, but also a living tradition full of rich connotations, which is an important part of people's lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)

===Terms and Expressions===

the Beginning of Spring 立春

Beginning of Autumn 立秋

Rain Water 雨水

End of Heat 处暑

Insects Awakening 惊蛰

White Dew 白露

Spring Equinox 春分

Autumnal Equinox 秋分

Fresh Green 清明

Cold Dew 寒露

Grain Rain 谷雨

First Frost 霜降

Beginning of Summer 立夏

Beginning of Winter 立冬

Lesser Fullness 小满

Light Snow 小雪

Grain in Ear 芒种

Heavy Snow 大雪

Summer Solstice 夏至

Winter Solstice 冬至

Lesser Heat 大暑

Lesser Cold 小寒

Greater Heat 立春

Greater Cold 大寒

===Questions===

1.1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?

2.Where does the 24 solar terms originate from?

3. What are the eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes？

4.When was the 24 solar terms included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List?

5.What are the food customs in the Beginning of Spring?

6.Do you konw any other folklore of the 24 solar terms?

===Answers===

1.Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox.

2.It originated in the Yellow River valley.

3.Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice

4.In 2016.

5.People eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots.

6.It is said that people should eat dumplings on the Start of Winter. There is a story about the birth of dumplings. According to legend, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, the "Sage of Medicine", invented the "jiaozi" to treat frostbite patients with frostbitten ears. He cooked mutton, hot peppers and herbs to dispel the cold and warm up the body. He wrapped these ingredients into a dough skin and made them into an ear shape. Since then, people have learned to make the food which became known as "dumpling" or jiaozi. Today there is still a saying that goes "Eat dumplings on Start of Winter Day, or your ears will be frostbitten."

===References===

Yuan Jix. 袁济喜. (2016). "中华思想文化术语(3)”[Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture]. 外语教学与研究出版社”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Belarusian Literature and Arts Press] (Yuan Jix 2016:)

Wang Jiahua. 王加华.（2019.9.20）"China Social Science Network" http://www.cssn.cn/zx/bwyc/201909/t20190920_4974497_1.shtml

Ding Yiming. Chang He. 丁一鸣. 常河（2020.11.17）"Chinanews" http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2020/11-17/9340057.shtml

He Yannan. Zou Yating. 贺亚楠. 邹雅婷. (2020.2.4) “China Daily” https://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3901a9a3107bb6b579d18d.html

==Literature, Yue Fu - Hu Baihui 胡百辉 202070080590 MTI==

===Collection of Yue Fu Poetry《乐府诗集》===

====Introduction====

'''1.Brief introduction'''

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name. (Wu Ting 2007, 20)

'''2.About the author'''

Guo Maoqian (1041-1099) was born in Xucheng, Yunzhou, Song Dynasty. He is the grandson of Guo Quan, and the son of Guo Yuanming. Song Shenzong Yuanfeng seven years (1084), Cao joined the army in Henan Province. He wrote a hundred volumes of ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'', which was handed down from generation to generation. (Wu Ting 2007, 22)

'''3.Content introduction'''

It divides Yuefu Poems into 12 categories, including suburban Temple songs, Yan shooting songs, drum songs, horizontal blowing songs, Xianghe songs, etc. In these different kinds of music, the songs of Jiaomiao and yanshe belong to the movements used by the imperial court, and their ideological content and artistic skills are less desirable. There are also some works with poor artistic value. But generally speaking, most of the poems it collects are excellent folk songs and poems written by scholars with old Yuefu titles. In the existing poetry collection, "Yuefu Poetry Collection" is an important book with the most complete collection of all kinds of Yuefu Poetry in the past dynasties. (Wu Ting 2007, 30)

====Masterpieces====

'''1.''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'''''

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife, but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for love freedom and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)

'''2.''Mulan Poetry'''''

''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man, joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality. Therefore, it has strong artistic appeal. (Wu Ting 2007, 41)

====Evaluation====

'''1.Contributions'''

The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in the singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literature history and music history.There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but narrative is attached to lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)

'''2.Shortcomings'''

There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''. For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as an ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)

===References===
Wu Ting 吴婷. (2007). 乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究 [A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry'']. Nanchang:Nanchang University 南昌大学 (12) 20-41.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

Yu Yizhi 喻意志. (2002). 乐府诗集成书研究 [A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Normal University 上海师范大学 (10)105-107.

===Terms and Expressions===

''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''《乐府诗集》

Jiaomiao songs郊庙歌辞

Yanshe songs燕射歌辞

Guchui drum songs鼓吹曲辞

Hengchui songs横吹曲辞

Xianghe songs相和歌辞

''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' 《孔雀东南飞》

''Mulan Poetry''《木兰辞》--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:24, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.When was Yuefu Poetry compiled？

2.Which institution did "Yuefu" belong to?

3.What are ''The Peacock Flies to Southeast''based on?--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:34, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.In Song Dynasty.

2.It belongs to the institution in charge of music.

3.It is based on a marriage tragedy.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 10:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China - Hu Jin 胡瑾 - MTI 英语笔译==
<center>胡瑾，202070080591.</center>
===Eight Major Cuisines of China===

====1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisines====

As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, China's food culture began to take shape. At that time, Tai Gongwang was the most representative. In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period under the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, the flavors of North and South dishes showed differences. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the southern cuisine and the northern cuisine formed their own systems. In the Southern Song Dynasty, sweet in south and salty in north was formed. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Shandong Cuisine, Sichuan Cuisine, Cantonese Cuisine, and Su Cuisine became the most influential local dishes at that time, and they were called the "four major cuisines." By the end of the Qing Dynasty, four new local cuisines, Zhejiang Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, and Anhui Cuisine, were differentiated and formed, which together constituted the "eight major cuisines" of traditional Chinese cuisine. (Lv Xiaomin 2009, 64)

====2. The Classification of Chinese Cuisines====

China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavors. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)

[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Click [https://image.so.com/view?q=%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%9C%E8%8F%9C&src=tab_www&correct=%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%9C%E8%8F%9C&ancestor=list&cmsid=aa3db80e177adc3de3b63a7a4a92c45b&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=15&crn=0&bxn=15&fsn=90&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=241#id=a672aab13af3e8780511f47ae795adaf&currsn=0&ps=64&pc=64]for original source.]]

=====2.1 Shandong Cuisine=====

Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Besides, Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)

[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China2.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Click [http://spro.so.com/searchthrow/api/midpage/throw?ls=s112c46189d&lm_extend=ctype:3&ctype=3&q=%E5%9B%9B%E5%B7%9D%E8%8F%9C&rurl=https%3A%2F%2Fp0.ssl.qhimgs1.com%2Ft01f2bd515563274e2e.jpg&img=https%3A%2F%2Fp0.ssl.qhimgs1.com%2Ft01f2bd515563274e2e.jpg&key=t01f2bd515563274e2e.jpg&s=1608554450036]for original source.]]

=====2.2 Sichuan Cuisine=====

Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical and exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)

[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China3.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Click [http://www.sohu.com/a/218230220_99908559]for original source.]]

=====2.3 Guangdong Cuisine=====

Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables, which originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, just bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)

=====2.4 Fujian Cuisine=====

[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China4.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Click [http://spro.so.com/searchthrow/api/midpage/throw?ls=s112c46189d&lm_extend=ctype:3&ctype=3&q=%E7%A6%8F%E5%BB%BA%E8%8F%9C&rurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.775jia.net%2FYinShi%2FMinCai%2F31482.shtml&img=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.775jia.net%2FYinShi%2FUploadFiles_9031%2F201509%2F2015091116403610.jpg&key=t01464ca1111688a753.jpg&s=1608554608736]for original source.]]

Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct feature is their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)

=====2.5 Jiangsu Cuisine=====

Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh, sweet and delicate. Jiangsu Cuisine is well-known for its careful selection of ingredients, its methodology of meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)

[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China5.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Click [http://k.sina.com.cn/article_6439974127_17fda34ef00100da0v.html]for original source.]]

=====2.6 Zhejiang Cuisine=====

Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. And Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)

[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China6.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Click [https://p0.ssl.qhimgs1.com/sdr/400__/t01251eef817d0f7eba.jpg]for original source.]]

=====2.7 Hunan Cuisine=====
Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessities in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)

[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China7.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Click [http://img.mp.itc.cn/upload/20170602/aa062f4f21f54de594cc451c9dd40ea2_th.jpg]for original source.]]

=====2.8 Anhui Cuisine=====

Anhui Cuisine focuses much more on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking methods are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)

[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China8.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Click [http://5b0988e595225.cdn.sohucs.com/images/20171130/fb6d5f2f2ed24b9f986a678b599347f3.jpeg]for original source.]]

====3. A Comparison of Chinese-Western Diet Culture====

Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. So there are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)

Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China. But it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)

However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to both their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)

There are also differences in the names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo Meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)

====References====

Bi Jiwan 毕继万. (1999). 跨文化非语言交际 [Cross-cultural Nonverbal Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 78-83.

Cai Hua 蔡华. (2009). 试论中西饮食文化的差异 [On the Differences between Chinese and Western Food Culture]. ''邵阳学院学报'' Journal of Shaoyang University 56-67.

Du Xuezeng 杜学增. (1999). 中英文化习俗比较 [Comparison of Chinese and English Cultural Customs]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 212-217.

Lv Xiaomi, Ding Xiao, Dai Yangyong 吕晓敏, 丁骁, 代养勇. (2008). 中国八大菜系的形成历程和背景 [The Formation Process and Background of Eight Major Cuisines in China ]. ''中国食物与营养'' Food and Nutrition in China (10) 62－64．

Shi Hongmei 史红梅. (2009). 地理教学中我国地域饮食文化差异研究 [Study on the Differences of Regional Diet Culture in Geography Teaching in China]. ''河北师范大学'' Hebei Normal University 34-68.

===Terms and Expressions===

pot-stewed fowl 卤味

stewing and simmering 炖，煨

prickly ash 花椒

fermented soybean 豆鼓

Braised Dongpo Pork 东坡肉

Buddha Jumps over the Wall 佛跳墙

Kung Pao Chicken 宫保鸡丁

Bean Sauce Tofu 麻婆豆腐

===Questions===
1. How many types of cuisines are there in china?

2. What’s differences between Chinese and western diets?

3. What is the origin of Dongpo Meat?

===Answers===
1. Eight

2. 1. The western cooking method is simpler than that in China. 2. Western diet pays attention to the nutrition while Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. 3. Western diet is a more rational diet. 4. Westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. 5. Westerners specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. 6. There are also differences in names of dishes.

3. It is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Folk Art: Chinese Paper-cutting - Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪 202070080636 MTI 英语口译 ==

===Chinese Paper-cutting 剪纸===

===Text===

====Introduction====

With a long history, the Chinese paper-cutting could be dated back to 2000 years ago according to the archaeological records. It originated in ancient ancestor worship activities in which people pray for their ancestors and gods. Later, with the widespread paper-cutting techniques and people’s growing love, it gradually served as the decorations for the doors, walls, mirrors, lanterns and so on. Nowadays, paper-cutting has already become an integral part of Chinese traditional culture and serves as a window of the Chinese folk culture. (Jiao Youtian 2016, 3)

====History====

[[File:The Earliest Paper-cutting Found in Turfan.jpg|250px|thumb|right| The Earliest Paper-cutting Found in Turfan, image from www.Chinawriter.com.cn Click[http://www.chinawriter.com.cn/n1/2019/0115/c404102-30538973.html] for original source.]]

The skill of cutting and carving appeared way before the invention of paper, and a number of materials, from the bark, leaves and animal skin, to later silk, were cut into certain shapes to decorate things, which laid a solid foundation for the art of paper-cutting. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 7)

As the paper is not easy to preserve, few of the paper works could survive to modern times. “The earliest such work surviving are five examples dating from the Northern Dynasties period (386-581), unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.” (Lu Zhongmin 2002, 8)

In the Tang dynasty the custom of paper-cutting began to be popular, and the handicraft man cut paper to different shapes, each given a special name. Namely, the shape of square was named “Fangsheng”, the flower-shaped “Huasheng”, the people-shaped “Rensheng”. Two pieces of “Huasheng”, which were the remains in the Tang Dynasty, are preserved now in Shōsō-in in Japan. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 7-8)

By the Song Dynasty, with the prosperous economy and culture, in addition to daily decoration, paper-cutting was used in other crafts such as porcelain and blue calico. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 8)

The art of paper-cutting became mature in Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. There emerged well designed paper-cutting works in the Yuan dynasty, and collectors began to collect paper-cutting as artworks. By the Ming Dynasty, the application of paper-cutting became even wider, with clip gauze lantern as a representative. It is a lantern with paper-cutting clipped in, candlelight reflecting the pattern. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 8)

Since its birth, the art of paper-cutting has never been interrupted. In its long history, it evolved with pottery, printing, dyeing, and other forms of art, being an indispensable part of people’s life. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 8)

====Five Regions====

The distribution of Chinese folk paper-cutting, combining with the historical changes, geographical and ecological environment changes, cultural development differences, and so on, can be divided into five regions. (Wang Minbo 2006, 106)

Northeast Changbai Mountains region: It mainly covers the Changbai Mountain area in Heilongjiang Province and Liaoning Province. As the birthplace of the nation of Man, the paper-cutting here herited the culture and customs of Man. (Wang Minbo 2006, 106)

Yellow river basin region: With the north of Shaanxi' paper-cutting as the center, it is simple but more expressive because of its rough lines and designs. (Wang Minbo 2006, 106)

Yangtze River basin region: It covers paper-cutting in the Provinces of Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu. Influenced by folk farming culture and the Confucian culture in the Han dynasty, paper-cutting in this region is in the rough in shape but bears a sense of delicacy. (Wang Minbo 2006, 106)

The southeastern coastal region: It is highlighted by the paper-cutting of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. This region, more affluent. Paper-cutting creation, especially in Zhejiang Jinhua, Guangdong Foshan as the representative, in the history of cultural development, the vein is also more distinct, its aesthetic interest tends to be elegant and common appreciated. (Wang Minbo 2006, 106)

Southwestern minority region: It is characterized by paper-cutting in the minorities in Provinces of Yunan and Guizhou. Many paper-cuttings are combined with embroidery patterns. The religious beliefs of this region obviously involved in the art of paper-cutting. (Wang Minbo 2006, 107)

====Categories====

[[File: Dyed Paper-cutting.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Dyed Paper-cutting, image from 360baike. Click [https://baike.so.com/doc/2408800-2546694.html] for original source.]]

There are various ways to make paper-cutting works, including folding paper-cutting, smoked paper-cutting, color-blocking paper-cutting, and copper-lined paper-cutting, but the most common ones are mono-colored and dot-colored. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 8)

Mono-colored paper-cutting refers to paper-cuttings cut or curved with a single-colored paper, mostly in red. The Chinese revered red since ancient times, and whenever there are grand celebration ceremonies or festivals, red is the main color, demonstrating warmth, passion, brightness, and happiness. Besides red, mono-colored paper-cutting is also available in black or other colors, which are used according to different circumstances, among which white paper-cutting is mostly used, as it could serve as the base sample for embroidery. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 8)

Dyed paper-cutting is also called dotted paper cuttings. The handicraftsman would mostly choose Xuan paper as the material, a kind of thin white paper that absorbs water easily. Twenty or thirty pieces of such paper are put into a pile and the pattern is carved out with a knife. Then the mass of paper is dyed. The colors become rich and elegant after dying, with endless changes and a strong local flavor. The dyed paper-cutting is mainly found in Hebei, Shanxi, and Guangdong Provinces, among which the dotted paper cuttings in the Wei County, Hebei owns a very unique style. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 8)

====Themes====

Folk paper-cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions, totem worship, and religious beliefs. Its connection with the major festivals and traditional customs finds its full expression in every aspect of life. Paper-cutting is an essential folk activity in the villages. Traditionally, on the 23rd day of the twelfth lunar month, women "drop their hoes and pick up scissors to cut papers"; on the 28th, flowers are pasted on the windows. On this day, every family paste window decorations, new year’s pictures, and Spring Festival couplets to create a lively environment for the new year. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 8)

It is the rural working women who design and create the majority of the delicate paper-cuttings. When they are five or six years old or seven or eight years old, they begin to follow their mothers and grandmothers to learn paper-cutting. Mothers would pass on their treasured paper-cutting patterns to their daughters and daughters-in-law as family heirlooms. This is how China’s folk paper-cutting has been passed down from generation to generation. They devoted themselves to the paper-cutting that are rich in connotations such as prosperity, peace and good fortune, happiness, health, and longevity. It is the inheritance of this spirit that has enabled the art of paper-cutting to last for thousands of years. (Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 2015, 9)

===References===

Jiao Youtian. 矫有田. (2016) ''中华剪纸绝艺 [Chinese paper-cutting]'' 济南：济南出版社 Jinan: Jinan Press.

Li Youyou, Zhang Jingjuan 李有有&张静娟. (2015) ''剪纸 [paper-cut]'' 北京: 中国旅游出版社 Beijing: China Travel & Tourism Press.

Lu Zhongmin. (2002) ''Folk Handicrafts''. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

Wang Minbo 王敏伯. (2006) ''中国民间剪纸史 [The History of Chinese Folk Paper-cut Arts]'' 杭州: 中国美术学院出版社 Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press.

===Terms and Expressions===

color-blocking paper-cutting 拼色剪纸

copper-lined paper-cutting 铜衬剪纸

dyed paper-cutting 点染剪纸

mono-colored paper-cutting 单色剪纸

smoked paper-cutting 熏样剪纸

Shōsō-in 正仓院

Spring Festival couplets 春联

totem worship 图腾崇拜

Turfan 吐鲁番

===Questions===

1. Where was the earliest paper-cutting found in China?

2. How many regions the distribution of Paper-cutting can be divided into?

3. Which two types of paper-cutting are the most common ones?

4. What could be the themes of the paper-cutting?

===Answers===

1. They were unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

2. Northeast Changbai Mountains area, Yellow river basin area, Yangtze River basin area, The southeastern coastal area, and Southwestern minority areas.

3. Mono-colored paper-cutting and dyed paper-cutting.

4. Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions, totem worship, and religious beliefs.
--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 15:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing - Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮 202070080592 MTI 英语笔译==
<center>蒋淇玮, 202070080592.</center>

===The Chinese Medical Sage - Zhang Zhongjing===

Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who is respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)

Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)

This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw through the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)

Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)

When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)

There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (Capital Medicine 2003, 40)

When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (Capital Medicine 2003, 40)

Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about those poor people. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (Capital Medicine 2003, 40)

Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the day of the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (Capital Medicine 2003, 40)

In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrap the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (Capital Medicine 2003, 40)

At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult man, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)

[[File:Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing.jpeg|400px|thumb|right|Click [http://www.zjjk365.com/Ne_d_gci_6_id_37065.html]for original source.]]

===References===

Nie Hongyan. 聂红艳. (2003). 张仲景故乡的二十四个故事(六) 饺子的来历 [Twenty-four Stories of Zhang Zhongjing's Hometown (VI) The Origin of Dumpling]. ''首都医药'' Capital Medicine (17) 40.

Tan Rongzhou. 覃荣周. (2013). 张仲景对我国医学发展的历史贡献 [Zhang Zhongjing's Historical Contribution to the Development of Chinese Medicine]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (07) 55-56.

Tian Yi 天一. (2020). 张仲景:“医圣”之名传天下 [Zhang Zhongjing: the Name of "Medical Sage" Spreads all over the World]. ''月读'' Monthly Read (03) 4-13.

Zhang Maoyun. 张茂云. (2014). 伤寒杂病论成书年代及仲景生平年代考历[J] [Journal on the Written Time of ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'' and the Lifeyime of Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国中医药现代远程教育'' Chinese Medicine Modern Distance Education of China (04) 19-20.

Zhang Deli. 张德礼. (2019). 心系百姓的“医圣”张仲景 [People's Medical Sage Zhang Zhongjing]. ''现代班组'' Morden Group (05) 37.

Zhao Qingxin. 赵清新. (1999). 万世医宗张仲景 ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''解放军健康'' PLA Health (05) 36.

Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan. 甄雪燕，王利敏，梁永宣. (2013). “医圣”张仲景 ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国卫生人才'' China Health Human Resources (07) 88-89.

===Terms and Expressions===

medical sage 医圣

''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases''《伤寒杂病论》

treatment based on syndrome differentiation/ diagnosis and treatment based on an overall analysis of the illness and the patient's condition 辩证施治

yamen 衙门

Great Cold ( 24th solar term ) 大寒

Slight Cold ( 23rd solar term ) 小寒

look, listen, question and feel the pulse -- four ways of diagnosis 望闻问切

Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup 祛寒娇耳汤

===Questions===

1. What's the honorable title Zhang Zhongjing addressed as?

2. What's the official role Zhang once taken?

3. When would Zhang treat patients for free at yamen?

4. What's the most well-known and important masterpiece Zhang ever write? What's his motive of writing it?

5. What's the relationship between Zhang Zhongjing and dumplings?

===Answers===

1. Chinese Medical Sage.

2. Changsha magistrate.

3. He treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month.

4. ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases.'' Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases.

5. Dumplings are derived from the recipe " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" developed by Zhang Zhongjing.

--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:53, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 5

2020-12-21T15:50:12Z

Hu Jin: /* Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Translation Thoughts=

==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation-李玉 Li Yu==

==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==

<center>林敏 Lin Min </center>
===Abstract===
Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significance of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauties principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.

===Key words===
Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty

===题目===
功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达

===摘要===
功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。

===关键词===
功能对等论，三美原则

===1. Introduction ===
With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose.

''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have tried to translate this prose, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating.

Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as a standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。

Here, this thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauties” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.

=== 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===
Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .

====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====
''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.（Han ,2018 ）

In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurrs to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wanders lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that "this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）."

====2.2 The Two English Versions ====
''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and is selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.（Chen ,2018）

===3. The Basis of Theory ===

====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====
The first scholar in history to propose the equivalence effect is the British translation theorist Alexander Fraser Tytler in 1790. He defined the “good translation” in his book ''A Brief Introduction to Translation Principles''. He introduced that the good translation should completely transfer the advantages of the original work to another language so that the target language readers could clearly understand and feel strongly as the original readers do. This is to say that a good translation should be able to produce the same effect as the original in different linguistic societies. Then, the German translation theorist Kaul called it a comparable effect in his book ''The Art of Translation'' in 1896.

Nida’s translation theory was formed in the 1960s and introduced to China in the 1980s. The functional equivalence principle is one of his central translation ideas. In 1964, Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Toward Science of Translating'', proposing to shift the focus of translation research from the attention of static text information to reader’s attention to the dynamic information of the text. In ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined this theory again. He proposed that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Here, the dynamic equivalence refers to the functional equivalence. The basic point of functional equivalence is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by readers with that of the recipient of the target text. It requires readers of the target text to be able to perceive the original text when understanding the translation.

====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====
Xu Yuanchong ,the highly respected translator and famous professor, is known as “the only person who translates Chinese poems into English and French”. He introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties”principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book ,he said that “the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem.”(Xu, 2003) Xu Yuanchong said that “in translation, the beauty in sense is the most important, beauty in sound comes next and the last is beauty in form, when it is difficult to achieve them all, translator should stress beauty in sense.”And professor Xu also claimed that the “Three Beauties” principles can use in researching and studying the translation of prose.(Xu, 2003)

===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===

Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze whether the two English versions of such prose achieve the degree of function equivalance.

====4.1 ====
Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:

Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)

Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.

However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point.

Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.

However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.

Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.

====4.2 ====
The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)
The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:

Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.

First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.

Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.

To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .

Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.

To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .

====4.3 ====
Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。”So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style? (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)

In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.

Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty.

The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.

Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.

All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form.

Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

“袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the ''OED'', which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.

Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)

Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)

Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)

Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .

===5. Conclusion===
We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.

Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.

===6.Reference===
* Leech G N,(2001) Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.
* Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[''Overseas English'']. 2018.7
* Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian.韩征顺,王健. （2008）月朦胧,荷朦胧,雾蒙蒙,意浓浓——《荷塘月色》四译文“模糊美”研究. [A Study on the “Fuzzy Beauty” of the Four Translations of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''] .西安外国语大学学报.[ Journal of Xi’an International Studies University] 第16卷　第4期.Vol. 16 Issue 4
* Liu Huiqun.刘慧群(2015).《荷塘月色》修辞翻译管窥[ A Glimpse of Rhetorical Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 语文学刊 [''Chinese Journal'']外语教育教学[Foreign Language Education and Teaching ].2015年第10期. 2015, Issue 10
* Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲.(1978)毛泽东诗词四十二首.[Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong]. 洛阳：中国人民解放军外国语学院[Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Foreign Languages] 1978.
* Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang杨宪益，戴乃迭(1990,5). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. 英语学习[''English Learning''], 1990(5).
*Yuan Lei.袁雷.功能对等理论指导下的散文英译及三美分析——《荷塘月色》的两个英译本比较[ On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence]贵州师范大学.[Guizhou Normal University]
* Zhu Ziqing.朱自清(1927).荷塘月色[''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''].全日制普高高一语文第一册第 5 课.[General High School Chinese Book 1 Lesson 5],原载 1927年7月10日《小说月报》第18卷第7期[originally published in ''Novel Monthly''].北京：人民教育出版社[ Beijing: People’s Education Publishing Society]
* Zhu Chunshen.朱纯深(1992). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''.中国翻译.[''Chinese Translation'']. 1992, (1).--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Form and Spirit in Translation -文偲荇 Wen Sixing, 202020080649 亚非语言文学==
<center> 文偲荇 Wen Sixing </center>

===Abstract===
Both the form and the spirit should be pursued in translation, which is a dialectical relationship. However, in translation, it often loses its spirit because of various factors that lead to excessive pursuit of formal resemblance. It is very important to deal with the problem between the formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance in translation. While emphasizing the spiritual resemblance, do not forget the formal resemblance. If possible, try to achieve a balance between the two, and make a choice in the specific context. Only in this way can the translation realize the new unity of the form and content of the source language in the target language.

===Key words===
Formal resemblance; Spiritual resemblance; Form and Content; Dialectical unification

===题目===
论翻译中的形的贴合与神的韵味

===摘要===
翻译时应追求形神兼备，这两者是一种辨证关系，但在翻译时常常会因为各种因素导致过度追求形似而失去神韵。处理好翻译中形似与神似之间的问题至关重要。在强调神似的同时不要忘记形似，在可能的情况下尽量达成两者之间的平衡，而在特定的语境下也可做出取舍，才有利翻译在译入语中实现传达原语形式和内容新的统一。

===关键词===
神似与形似；形式与内容；辨证统一

===1. Introduction===

----
====1.1 Definition====
Formal resemblance means that when translating, the target text should be consistent with the original text in terms of words, sentence structure, expression and figurative means. And spiritual resemblance means that when translating, we should try to keep the spirit and charm of the original work and achieve the artistic effect of the original work.

"Form", in translation activities, is the most important refers to "language". And "deformation" is what we call "language transformation". From the source language to the target language, "deformation", that is, "language transformation", is inevitable. The change of sound and shape, as well as the combination of sound, shape and meaning should also be changed. And "spirit", to use the terminology of contemporary linguistics, refers to the product of "linguistic activities".

From the point of view recognized by the current translation circle, "spirit" refers to "meaning" to a large extent, but the problem lies in the definition of "meaning", and the linguistic field has not formed a unified view. In fact, many debates about "spirit" and "form" are more or less rooted in the understanding of "spirit" and "form".(Xu Jun 2003,01)

====1.2 Spiritual resemblance in Translation====
The spiritual resemblance is first put forward by Fu Lei. He said, "As far as effect is concerned, translation should be like painting. What is sought is not resemblance in form but resemblance in spirit." (Fu Lei, 1950). Zhu Shenghao also put forward the idea of "keeping the spirit of the original". He said, "The aim of the book is to preserve the spirit of the original as far as possible. Must be forced to seek the next, also must be clear and clear words, faithfully convey the meaning of the original; However, the hard translation with word-for-word contrast is not appreciated. "(Zhu Shenghao, 1954). “神”, means the spirit of the original. Good literary works always have rich feelings, profound artistic conception, strong appeal and strong artistic effect.

===2. The relationship between Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance===

====2.1 Correlation====
Yan Fu, said in ''Theory of natural selection'', "Three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expression and elegance". "Faithfulness" means that the meaning does not differ from the original text, that is, the translation should be accurate, not deviate, not omit, and not add or subtract meanings at will. "Expression" means not sticking to the original form, but making the translation smooth and clear; "Elegance" means that the words chosen in the translation should be appropriate and the article itself should be quaint and concise. In translation, it is difficult to be faithful to the ideological content of the original text. However, if you correctly understand the original text without "expressing" it in a smooth translation, it is equivalent to no translation. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on "expressing" at this time. Since then, the expression of translation has become the focus of translation studies.

Formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance is two different means of translating expression, question of "form" and "spirit" in translation also is one of the most discussed and most difficult fundamental issues to be unified. "The relationship between form and spirit, which directly reflects the relationship between signifier and signified, which is closely related to the means and ends of translation. The so-called means is the transformation of form, while the end is the rebirth of spirit." (Xu Jun 2003, 1). Fundamentally speaking, "form" and "spirit" are interdependent. No "form" means no "spirit".

However, the saying that "sprit follows form", which we often emphasize, gives form the primary character as the material basis for spirit's existence. "Form" is concrete, and the relationship between "form" and "spirit" involves every aspect of human life. The discussion about "body" and "soul" is, to a certain extent, a dispute about the relationship between "form" and "spirit". "soul" and "flesh" in religion, "substance" and "spirit" in philosophy, "form" and "content" in literature, etc, all originate from the fundamental problem of "form" and "spirit". "As far as translation is concerned, the question of "form" and "spirit" can be said to be an obvious paradox. The contradiction lies in the fact that "form" and "spirit" are interdependent and inseparable in nature, while the fundamental task of translation is to achieve the rebirth of "spirit" through "form" transformation". (Xu Jun 2003, 2)

====2.2 In translation, numerous factors may cause the Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance out of step====

=====2.2.1 Metaphors and Associations=====
Due to the different ways of expression in the two languages, the metaphors and associations used in SL(source language) are often unacceptable to TL(target language) readers, or TL readers cannot understand them at all. Or from the surface structure, target language is similar to source language said, but in the sense is not exactly the same, even lost a thousand miles. In this case, for example, the expression form of source language is still used in translation and try to be similar in appearance, which is bound to form a semblance, with similar appearance and spirit completely lost.

ex）"A man may break a word with you,sir,and words are but wind."(SL)

“先生，跟你说话的人可能会失言，而言语总会随风而逝。”(TL)

"Break a word with you" and "words are but wind" are all metaphors in English that may be difficult for non-native speakers to understand when translated.

ex）"The rain came down in long knitting needles."(SL)

“雨滴像长长的编织针一样落下。”(TL)

"Long knitting needles", is a special thing that exists in the context of a native speaker, so non-native speakers are likely to have no accurate concept of it, so it's hard to fully grasp the metaphor even with an honest translation.

=====2.2.2 The cultural differences=====
The translator and the author have different cultural backgrounds, so their understanding of the original text is naturally different. This difference in understanding is mainly due to the influence of preconceived notions. This is a pervasive cultural phenomenon.

ex）He is really the man in the moon(SL)

“他是个真正的月老”(TL)*

“他是个真正远离世俗的人”(TL)

In Britain, people traditionally think of the dark shadow of the moon as a person. The moon is far from the earth, the people in the moon of the nature, he must be unknown to the human world. So He is really a man in the moon means "He is really a man out of the world"(他是个真正远离世俗的人). Under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, once people see the image words "moon" and "man" combined together, they will naturally think of "Yuelao(月老)"——The legendary god of marriage, which leads to the deviation in translation. (Niu Chuangyue 2006, 215)

ex）He is always politically correct(SL)

他总是政治正确(TL)*

他说话四平八稳(TL)

Many people take this sentence that "He is always politically correct" as "He is always correct in politics", which is in line with the Chinese mindset, but it's not what it says. Politics in Chinese refer to principles of thought and ideology while in English politics refer to how they approach people. "He is always politically correct" is not "He is always correct in politics", but "He's smooth talking."

=====2.2.3 The context of languages changes=====
The surface layer of words, is a relatively fixed objective reality; And its deep, namely its connotation, but often because of the person's subjective will shift. For language learners and users, it is not difficult to get familiar with the surface, but to grasp the connotation of its continuous shift. To grasp the connotation of words is to analyze the actual meaning of users in a specific context, which is also known as "understanding" in translation. The change of context can be divided into subjective and objective. The so-called subjective change refers to the meaning given to words by users for certain needs; And the objective change is the change in meaning caused by the natural environment.

ex) Made in China(SL)

（由）中国制造(TL1)

（在）中国制造(TL2)

Made in China was, of course, “由中国制造”, before western multinationals entered the country. But when multinational companies enter China, the products they set up in factories in China are still marked "Made in China", but they are not “由中国制造” but “在中国制造”. Made in China, likewise, is different by circumstance, either “由中国制造” or “在中国制造”, of which its connotation is different. Therefore, when understanding the original text, it is not enough to just focus on the literal itself, More attention should be paid to the impact of changes in social history and context.

=====2.2.4 Human factors=====
"Language is a dog". It means that people are subject to language. In fact, this metaphor only illustrates one aspect of the relationship between man and language, namely, man's passive adaptation to language changes. Such passive adaptation certainly exists objectively. But a closer look reveals that the so-called passive adaptation is also due to some human factors rather than the powerful inertia of non-language itself.

On June 20, 2005 British farmers grow potatoes held a noisy protest in London, protesting the Oxford English dictionary, included the couch potato (refers to passive while sitting idly spend your leisure time, especially all day watching TV or DVD), think it said the potatoes too unhealthy, so strongly asked the Oxford English dictionary, delete the entry with couch slouch replace the couch potato.

This event vividly illustrates the human element of semantic change. Potato is originally a plant without any emotional factors, but it has been artificially given some kind of associative meaning. In a sense, of course, this is an expression of the richness of language, but this richness comes at the cost of deducing the actual meaning of specific concepts. If we compare documents from hundreds or thousands of years ago with the languages we speak today, we will find a general phenomenon that today's languages are much more complex and abstract than those of old. The reason is that we are constantly deducing the semantic meaning of specific concepts or words for various rhetorical purposes.

In the concrete application of language, such deduction exists objectively and is also the concrete manifestation of the normal function of language communication. However, in translation, the translator should try to avoid the appearance of such deduction and manifestation, or at least control it within a certain limit, which may lead to the semantic variation of the primitive concept in the translation. (Zhang Rui 2015, 117)

====2.3 Balance of Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance in Translation====
Of course, it is best to retain the original spirit in translation, but is form and spirit necessarily contradictory? The answer is clearly no. This is because sometimes formal resemblance is spiritual resemblance. The ideological content and emotional charm of a literary work must be expressed in a certain form. Sometimes the original text has some metaphors or associative images, vivid and lifelike, with strong appeal, the emotion and artistic conception appear on the paper, and the source language habits are also close to the target language. At this time, keeping the original form of the translation actually plays a role of spirit evocative. By keeping this form, the translation can achieve the unity of form and spirit.

ex) He was a friendly and very hospitable man.(SL)

他是个友善而又十分好客的人。/他为人友善，热情好客。(TL)

ex)Though somewhat pompous, he was an entertaining companion.(SL)

虽然有些浮夸，（仍不免承认）他是个娱人的伴侣。(TL)

ex)He was a man of good understanding and talents.(SL)

他为人通达而富有才情。(TL)

ex)There are people to do everything for money.(SL)

为了钱什么事情都有人做。/有些人为了钱无所不为。(TL)

The above examples show that, at some point, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance can achieve a harmonious unity. Proper formal equivalence not only helps to preserve the language style of the original text, but also enriches the expression form of the target language. Such expression can achieve both the form and the spirit of the target language, on the one hand, it can retain the form of the original language, on the other hand, it cannot lose its spirit.

====2.4 Choice====

=====2.4.1 The pursuit of spiritual resemblance first=====
But in more cases, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance cannot be both.In the translation of literary works, the pursuit of a similar-looking translation lacks vitality. It would be best if the two languages can have both formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance. However, due to great differences in thinking mode, cultural basis and language structure of the two languages, especially the target language and the source language belong to two different language families with great cultural differences, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the formal resemblance and the spiritual resemblance.

In this case, if the blind pursuit of form similarity, the pursuit of language structure, vocabulary, grammar and other aspects of equivalence, will make the translation stiff, obscure, difficult to understand. For example, in English-Chinese translation, translators with low proficiency are often unable to get rid of the linguistic structure and form of the original text, resulting in a large number of European languages appearing in the Chinese translation.

Professor King Shenghua, a famous Hong Kong translator, once criticized this Europeanized language and called it "translated style". "What is 'translated style' ?" she said, “The word 'translationese' in English. In the past, it has been called the "translation cavity." (King Shenghua, 2006). Which means the translation has a strange-sounding, and unbearable tone of European language. However, up to now, the "translation cavity" is no longer enough to describe this phenomenon, because the evolution so far has formed a style, which appears not only in the translation, but also in the daily life of writing, meeting and communication. This phenomenon is not conducive to the development of translation. From the following examples, you can see the awkwardness of pursuing only the form of translation.

ex)There was much traffic at night and many mules on the road with boxes of ammunition on each side of their pack—saddles and gray motor trucks that carried men, and other trucks with loads covered with canvas that moved slower in the traffic.(SL)

晚上交通甚繁，有许多骡子走过，鞍子驮着军火箱子，灰色的摩托货车装着人，此外，还有一些装货的货车，上面用帆布盖着，走起来慢一点。(TL)*

夜间，这里运输繁忙，路上有许多骡子，鞍子的两侧驮着弹药箱，灰色的卡车上坐满了士兵，还有一些辎重车辆，用帆布盖着，在路上慢慢的行驶着。(TL)

Boxes, motor trucks, and trucks were used to identify the “军火箱子”,“摩托货车”, and “装货的货车”, totally be loyal to the source language. But in literary translation, the translation needs to consider the specific context. The writing background of this article is the period of war, so the translator should also put these words in the specific writing background of war, i.e. the “弹药箱”, “卡车”, “辎重车辆” in the next translation. The translation here obviously violates the original meaning and is a kind of betrayal to the original text. However, this kind of betrayal is the result of the translator's proper re-creation after considering the writing background of the original text. That is to say, in the process of translation, the translator lays emphasis on the spiritual resemblance of the original text, and thus abandons the formal resemblance in part.

ex)“原始森林景区是一个最具自身特点的生态观光区。放眼沟畔，‘林涛万顷接天碧，幽谷百丈入地青’ 的峡谷奇观，总会让人长久驻足; 登上矗立于沟畔的望火楼极目远眺，会真切体验登临泰山那种‘会当凌绝顶，一览众山小’的感觉。”(SL)

“The scenic primitive forest, as an eco-tourism place of interest, possesses its distinctive style. No tourists will not take time to enjoy the canyon spectacle: the vast expense of trees choiring in the wind and the deep valley dressed in green stretches long and deep. When climbing up the fire-watching tower and gawking into the distance, tourist scan experience the sense: "I have now ascended the mountain's crest that dwarfs all peaks under my feet", just as standing on top of Mount Tai. ”(TL)

“Artistic creation originates from a different national (aesthetic standard). As for the translation of artistic conception, some uncertain factors, such as language structure, narrative method, aesthetic method and context creation, often make it difficult for the translation to realize the absolutely correct "equivalence". The implication of this is that contextual translation has a lot of arbitrariness (i.e., asymmetrical equivalence) and is often not limited to any theory. This arbitrariness is reflected in the inspiration generation and Aesthetic creation of the translator in the process of translation.

In other words, the translator is affected by the artistic conception of the original text, arouses infinite emotion and artistic conception, and naturally puts this feeling into the translation. The key lies in the expressiveness, that is, the fluency and accuracy of the narration, and the completion of the transformation from one kind of beauty to another. ” (Zhang Ju 2011, 76)

=====2.4.2 Formal resemblance first=====
The choice of formal resemblance is preferred, mostly in the case of neat alignment and elegant form. For example, the translation of Chinese couplets, or poems, such as antithetical couplets, is a very important form of text.In the translation of general text, content is the primary form. However, when translating poetry, both content and form must be paid equal attention to. For poetry, form is often an integral part of the content that cannot be divided.

ex)《芣苢》：“采采芣苢，薄言采之。采采芣苢，薄言有之。采采芣苢，薄言掇之。采采芣苢，薄言捋之。采采芣苢，薄言袺之。采采芣苢，薄言襭之。”(SL)

Gathering plantain, Here we go plucking it; Gathering plantain, Here we go picking it. Gathering plantain, Quick fingers strip it; Gathering plantain, By handfuls pull it. Gathering plantain, Here we fill skirts with it; Gathering plantain, Belt up full skirts. (translated by Yang Xianyi)(TL)

ex)You say that you love rain, but you open your umbrella when it rains...
You say that you love the sun, but you find a shadow spot when the sun shines...
You say that you love the wind, But you close your windows when wind blows...
This is why I am afraid; You say that you love me too...(SL)

你说烟雨微芒，兰亭远望；后来轻揽婆娑，深遮霓裳。
你说春光烂漫，绿袖红香；后来内掩西楼，静立卿旁。
你说软风轻拂，醉卧思量；后来紧掩门窗，漫帐成殇。
你说情丝柔肠，如何相忘；我却眼波微转，兀自成霜。(TL)

It can be seen that in order to maintain the evenness and the artistic conception of the poem, many images and function words that were not in the original text were added in the translation. Thus it can be seen that it is of course ideal to achieve spiritual resemblance in translation, but it is also a choice to achieve formal resemblance. As long as it conveys the connotation of the original text and achieves functional equivalence, it should be regarded as a success.

===3. Discussion on Form and Spirit===
It should be noted that in the history of translation, the thinking about "form" and "spirit" has been going on almost all the time. In the 20th century, there have been many heated discussions about "form" and "spirit" in Chinese literary translation, and the focus of the discussions is mainly on whether translation should seek formal resemblance or spiritual resemblance. On the surface, it does not seem to be a problem whether the translation should seek resemblance in form or in spirit, because seeking resemblance is not and should not be the purpose of translation.

“However, those who advocate formal resemblance believe that only by seeking formal resemblance first can the spiritual resemblance be guaranteed. But the school that advocates spiritual resemblance thinks, shape resemblance is hard to find, can rely on spiritual resemblance only. The former pursues the first appearance and then spirit, and "both form and spirit" is the best realm; The latter takes "spiritual resemblance" as the only pursuit, and clearly puts forward that "what the translation seeks for is not in appearance but in spiritual resemblance". Due to the difference in emphasis between the formal resemblance school and the spiritual resemblance school, there are also differences in translation methods. The former advocates literal translation while the latter advocates free translation.” (Xu Jun 2003, 02)

The discussion of form and spirit in translation can be traced back to Mao Dun's article "Responsibility and Efforts of New Literature Researchers", published in ''Fiction Monthly'' (1921), in which he proposed that "the most important artistic color of a literary work is the spirit of the work. Chen Xiying also published "on Translation" in ''New Moon''(1929), proposing the theory of sculpture and painting. He pointed out that "translation is the same as painting, of course, imitation is the most important. But the imitation art of a original painting uses the same brush color, while the original text of a book and the translated text use very different languages. Due to different tools, the methods vary greatly." (Chen Xiying,1921). Chen also divides translation into three levels, formal resemblance, meaning resemblance and spiritual resemblance. Chen's "Three Levels" theory is similar to Zhu Shenghao's "Three Levels": (spirit, interest and charm, and rigid translation) theory in translation of Shakespeare's plays.

Xu Yuanchong, a famous translator and professor of Peking University, also put forward the theory of "three likings", based on his own experience in poetry translation. In the ''Art of Translation'', he thought that in order to convey the beauty of meaning, sound and form of poetry, the degree of meaning resemblance, sound resemblance and shape resemblance in the translation can be changed. Jiang Feng, a translator, pursues resemblance in form followed by resemblance in spirit. He said in the afterword of translation of ''Selected Shelley poems'' that in translating poems, one should strive to be alike in form and spirit, because spirit lives in form, and those who lose his form are bound to perish his spirit. Bian Zhilin, also advocated that the translated poems should be translated in accordance with the original form.

Therefore, as far as translation is concerned, Mao Dun and Fu Lei advocate the emphasis on spiritual resemblance rather than formal resemblance, Jiang Feng advocates both form and spirit, while Bian Zhilin advocates that form resemblance is spiritual resemblance.

===4. Conclusion===
From the above content, we can know that there are many factors that influence the form and spirit in translation, and the emphasis on the form or spirit resemblance in translation depends on some specific situations, which need to be analyzed on a specific basis. For example, when translating ancient poems and poems, in order to keep the antithesis neat, we emphasize the form more; When translating long sentences with beautiful artistic conception, we usually put more emphasis on the spirit in order to preserve the beauty of artistic conception.

In the process of translation, to achieve the dialectical unity of form and spirit, at least two aspects need to be considered: one is the restriction of form on content; the other is the stylistic meaning of form itself. We should not only consciously convey the content of the original text, but also convey the formal meaning, so as to achieve a new unity of form and content in the target language, to produce a better translation and achieve a harmonious unity between form and spirit.

However, in some cases the formal resemblance is the spiritual resemblance. The two are not completely separated, but there is a part of you and a part of me in each other. Sometimes the formal resemblance is bigger than the spiritual resemblance, and sometimes spiritual resemblance is bigger than the formal resemblance. This is the dialectic of things, if we insist on consistency, it will backfire. Therefore, we should not only get a thorough understanding of the original text, in-depth study, strive for both form and spirit, grasp the key points and master them thoroughly, but also be prepared to abandon the form of the original text, grasp the essence of the original text, use appropriate form, the original text for artistic recreation, so as to strive for the ideal effect of spirit resemblance.

===Reference===
[1] Cui Yonglu. 崔永禄. (2002). 得意不可忘形——试论翻译中形与神的辨证关系. [Pride must not Be Lost in Shape -- On the dialectical relationship between form and God in Translation]. ''天津外国语学院学报''. [Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University] 1-5.

[2] Li Zhengguo. 李振国. (2016). 从奈达的功能对等理论视角探析英汉翻译中的“形神兼备”——以程雨民的《初次与约翰逊见面》译本为例. [An Analysis of "Both form and Spirit" in English-Chinese translation from the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory -- A case study of Cheng Yumin's ''First Meeting with Johnson'']. ''贵州师范学院学报''. [Journal of Guizhou Normal University] 92-94.

[3] Niu Chuangyue. 牛喘月. (2006). 形与神俱,不可分离——从语义与语境的演变看中医翻译中的“常”与“变”. [Form and Spirit are inseparable -- "Chang" and "Chang" in TCM Translation from the Perspective of Semantic and Contextual Evolution]. ''中西医结合学报''.

[4] Pang Xuefeng. 庞学峰. (2013). 翻译中的文质之争与神形之辩. [The quality of the text and the form of the debate in translation]. ''赤峰学院学报(汉文哲学社会科学版)''. [Journal of Chifeng College (Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences edition)] 150-151.

[5] Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). “形”与“神”辨. ["Form" and "Spirit"]. ''上海外国语大学学报''. [Journal of Shanghai International Studies University] 57-66.

[6] Zhang Ju. 张巨. (2011). 汉英意境翻译中的形与神. [Form and Spirit in Chinese-English translation of Artistic Conception]. ''江苏外语教学研究''. [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu province] 74-78.

[7] Zhang Rui. 张蕊. (2015). 从形与神之矛盾看“翻译者即背叛者”. [From the contradiction between form and Spirit, "translator is a traitor"]. ''鸭绿江(下半月版)''. [The Yalu River (second Half)] 122+117.

[8] Zhang Xiaoman. 张小曼. (2006). 诗歌翻译中的形神问题——以杜甫《望岳》一诗的英译为例. [The Problem of Form and Spirit in Poetry Translation -- Taking The English translation of Du Fu's ''Wangyue'' as an example]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''. [Journal of Hefei University of Technology (Social Science edition)] 157-160.

--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Book Analysis: The Way of Transaltion: Theories and Application 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==
your student number and 专业are missing--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
The Way of Translation:Theories and Applications closely circled around the mutual relationship between translation theory and practice to make explanation about translation studies. This article aims to make a summary about the original text, which includes a brief translation history, the present situation about the translation study, the detailed analysis about the “cultural turn” as well as some important redefined concept about translation studies and the deep reflection about the translation studies. The author would like to make some analysis about the book from different perspectives, includes the introduction, major contend, academic contributions, strength and weakness etc.

===Key Words===
translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose
Translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
《翻译之道：翻译理论与实践》一书紧紧围绕翻译理论与实践之间的互动关系展开, 作者对中西翻译历史作出简要回顾，针砭时弊，对翻译理论与实践现状进行了切中的描述，深挖“文化转向”的来龙去脉，重新界定了翻译概念、目的与标准等概念，对理论与实践的现状作出深刻反思。本文将就原书出版背景、逻辑主线、学术立意、读后启发几个方面展开论述。

===关键词===
翻译理论与实践；“文化转向”；译介学；翻译学；文本目的

===Introduction===
About the Background
As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate their experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.
After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.
However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other.
Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.
Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.

About the Author
Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.

The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.

====About the Background====
As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.

After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.

However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other.

Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.

Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====About the Author====
Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.

The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Main body===

====The brief introduction====
From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.
First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.
Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.
In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.
The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.
Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.

From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.

First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.

Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.

In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.

The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.

Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Specific Exposition====
To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.
He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.
In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.
In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.
While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.
This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus.
Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.
In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).
From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).
However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth& Cowie, 2004:183).
Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.
From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.
First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.
The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.
In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.

To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.

He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.

In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.

In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.

While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.

This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus.

Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).

From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).

However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth& Cowie, 2004:183).

Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.

From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.

First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.

The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.

In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===The writing feature===
====Complete system with extensive quotations====
In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.
Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the "annual review" of Chinese translation studies.
For this reason, the author makes a research on the "cultural turn" which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as "equivalent translation exploration", "contemporary translation theory", "translation", "the basic framework of the translation in China" in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature "and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.
The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.
In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.

In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.

Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the "annual review" of Chinese translation studies.

For this reason, the author makes a research on the "cultural turn" which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as "equivalent translation exploration", "contemporary translation theory", "translation", "the basic framework of the translation in China" in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature "and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.

The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.

In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.
--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Logical and philosophical Explanation====
At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.
First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter "cultural turn", known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.
The translator's task is to "make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers". As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of "translation theory location map", can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.

At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.

First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter "cultural turn", known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.

The translator's task is to "make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers". As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of "translation theory location map", can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Powerful Critism with strong evidence====
Throughout the full text, from the status quo of the theory and practice of the second chapter, especially the book in the last few chapters, the author through a large number of reading and rely on the accumulation of translation practice for a long time, have been put forward for the theoretical study and practice of translation problems in reality, the relationship between problem, theory research example, textual research is lax, citing uncertainty, terminology translation and the translation is not unified, there thinking logic and language logic problem, theory and problems such as monotonous and argument, and the question of whether cognitive process is objective, translator translation practice have a "betrayal" of the problem of the wind, vision, objective, to the point, In the last chapter, the author elaborated on the relationship between pure theory and translation, provided a way to combine theory with practice, and improved a complete methodology and action guide for us to better combine theory with practice.

===Conclusion===
From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.
Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities.

In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.
Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose.
With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.
Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.
Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative.
Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.
He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.
Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity.
He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.
Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.
Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.
To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.
The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!

From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.

Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities.

In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.

Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose.

With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.

Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.

Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative.

Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.

He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.

Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity.

He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.

Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.

Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.

To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.

The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reference===
Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.
Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie：翻译研究词典[M]．外语教学与研究出版社，2005
谢天振，王宁翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展 [M]．复旦大学出版社，2017
曹明伦，翻译之道：理论与实践 [M]．保定：河北大学出版社，2007
甘雪梅．2010．“学、“术共生，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书[J]．湖北函授大学学报，(5)：110-111
黄中习．2008．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评[J]．北经济学院学报，(10)：150一l51
朱蕤．2010．对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以《翻译之道》为伽 R1．福建省外国语文学会2010年年会．厦门

Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.(缺少年份)

Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie.翻译研究词典．外语教学与研究出版社，2005（格式错误）

Xie Tianzhen, Wang Ning. 谢天振，王宁. (2017). ''翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展''. [Translation Studies: The Search and Development as an Independent Subject] 上海：复旦大学出版社[Shanghai: Fudan University Press].

Cao Minglun. 曹明伦. (2017). ''翻译之道：理论与实践''. [The Tao of Translation: Theory and Practice] 保定：河北大学出版社[Baoding: Hebei University Press].

Gan Xuemei. 甘雪梅. (2010)．“学、“术共生，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书. [Symbiosis of "Science and "Technology", "Dao" and "Apparatus" Mutually Reconcile: A Comment on Professor Cao Minglun's Book "The Tao of Translation: Theory and Practice"]. ''湖北函授大学学报''[Journal of Hubei Correspondence University] 110-111.

Huang Zhongxi. 黄中习．(2008)．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评. [Efforts to build a harmonious relationship between translation theory and practice: An introduction to the theory and practice of translation]. ''北经济学院学报''[Journal of North University of Economics]150一l51.

Zhu Yu. 朱蕤. (2010). 对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以《翻译之道》为例. [Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies: Taking "The Way of Translation" as an example]. 厦门：福建省外国语文学会2010年年会. [Xiamen: 2010 Annual Meeting of Fujian Foreign Language and Literature Association].--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=Translation Strategies=

==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==

===Abstract===
This paper studies the English version of ''seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the perspective of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory of translation. It can be found that this English version focuses on the target audience and uses appropriate translation strategies, methods and techniques in the light of the target audience's reading habits and cultural background, such as free translation, literal translation, shift, addition, omission, division and combination. As a result, the English translation’s vocabulary, discourse structure or expression can be easier to be accepted by the target audience, which is conducive to the dissemination of China's information and maximizes the communication effect of international news of China.

Keywords: Skopos Theory; translation strategies; translation methods；audience

===摘要===
根据汉斯・佛米尔翻译目的论的观点对《为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年》英译本进行研究，发现该译本以目标受众为着眼点，从目标受众的阅读习惯和文化背景出发，运用恰当的翻译策略、方法和技巧，比如意译、直译、转译、增译、减译等，因而译本的英语词汇、语篇结构或表达方式更易为目标受众接受，这有利于中国信息的传播，最大程度增强我国国际新闻的对外传播效力。

关键词: 目的论；翻译方法；翻译技巧; 受众

===Introduction===
''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' is a white paper published by the Information Office of the State Council of China in September 2019. In addition to the preface and conclusion, the full text consists of eight parts, and quotes a large amount of data to show in detail the progress of human rights in China since 1949; the people-centeredness of human rights; the ways to realize the protection of human rights; the remarkable achievements in the implementation of human rights; the continuous strengthening of human rights protection and China's contribution to promoting the cause of human rights in the world.

Nowadays, international political, economic and cultural exchanges are unprecedented frequent and in-depth. International information and culture should be welcomed by our country. At the same time, Chinese culture and values need to be spread. We should have our own voice in international exchange activities, to tell Chinese stories so that the world can better understand China(He Jiaying 2020,4). Therefore, the translation of Chinese international news plays an important role in cross-cultural communication and communication between China and foreign countries. Therefore，it is also worthwhile to study the translation of these news.

In ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'', its accurate and rigorous translation has played a positive role in shaping national image and building international discourse. There are a large number of words related to political system with Chinese characteristics in this text. These words often represent some important policies and current situation of human rights of our country. Accurate translation of these words is the key to correctly convey these messages.

Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of translation and holds that translation activities should adopt corresponding translation methods and techniques. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation work is mainly for the target audience. Its purpose is to achieve the re-dissemination of the original content and finally gain a certain communicative effect.

As a political document, ''seeking happiness for people: 70 years of progress on human rights in China'' can be regarded as government behavior, that is, the organizer and commissioner of translation is the government, and the translator is the institution and interpreter entrusted by the Chinese government. If the relationship between entrustment and entrustment is made clear, the purpose of translation is obvious. The Chinese government disseminates such information, like the concept of human rights, the way to realize the cause of human rights, the achievements of developing human rights, and China's contributions over the years, to English speaking countries on the basis of respecting their linguistic habits and cultural backgrounds. In this way，translators should observe translation principles and choose appropriate translation strategies under the guidance of this purpose.

The principle of coherence requires the translation to be logically clear and semantically cohesive, which can keep the Chinese style of political documents while making it accessible to readers. The principle of faithfulness requires the translator to accurately understand and grasp the connotation of article. (Luo Mazhang, 1984,124-126). On this basis, translators use translation techniques and methods to translate and interpret the original text, so that what readers understand from the English version is consistent with the information expressed in the original text. Moreover, according to the different characteristics of these words related to the political system with Chinese characteristics, we should adopt different translation strategies, methods and skills.

===A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory===
Skopos theory originated in Germany in the 1970s put forward by Hans Vermeer. It belongs to functional translation theory, in which it is the most important theory. It has a wide influence on text translation and is widely employed in translation. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any behavior has a purpose. The primary factor determining the process of translation is the purpose of translation (VERMEER HANS. J 1989:90). That is to say, translators shall exercise corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified in the light of the translation purpose. The translation strategy depends on the needs and expectations of the target language readers or audiences. Therefore, we can say that translation is a text that meets the needs of readers on the basis of translation purpose.

People pursuing skopos theory believe that skopos rules, coherence rule and fidelity rule should be followed in translation. The Skopos rule refers to that the translation behavior depends on the translation purpose, in other words the result determines the method; the coherence rule means that the translation must conform to the standard of intralingual coherence, namely, the translation must be comprehensible by the receiver and be meaningful in the target language communication; the faithfulness method refers to the existence of interlingual coherence between the original text and the target text, that is, the translation should be as faithful as possible to the original text (NORD C 2002,28).

Among the three laws, the rule of faithfulness is subordinate to the law of coherence, and at the same time, the two laws ultimately depend on the law of purpose. The translator should first ensure that the translation can achieve the intended purpose, then ensure the coherence of the translation, and finally ensure the consistency between the translation and the original (N. Zhao 2014, 98-101). We know that different cultures have different cultural customs and their own unique values, so translation is not an act of transforming one language into another. The translator should translate based on some specific requirements, combined with the specific demands of the translation, the target readers' reading habits and cultural background.

===The Employment of the Translation Strategies And Translation Methods in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===

====Foreignization Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====
In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him." (2006,229) It is shown that in translation, the language, literature and cultural characteristics of the original text should be retained to the full, and the foreign tone kept. The advantages of foreignization strategy are as follows: the structure of source language, poetic features can be introduced into the target language to enrich the expression of the target language; the target language readers can fully appreciate the exotic beauty, and thus promote the cultural exchange between different nationalities (Venuti, 1995). The defect of foreignization strategy is mainly reflected in the readability of the translation, that is, the translation may be stiff and not natural enough, which will affect the reception and dissemination of the target language among the target recipients.

=====Literal Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Literal translation is characterized by two main features: with regard to lexical meaning and rhetoric without the use of paraphrase, which distinguishes it from free translation; in the processing of lexical and syntactic structure, appropriate changes or transformations are allowed, for example, word order transformation is used to make the translation conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language, which distinguishes literal translation from word-for-word translation (Munday, J 2008,9). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

两个一百年 Two Centenary Goals; 当家作主 became masters of their country; 伟大复兴的中国梦 Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation;人类命运共同体 a global community of shared future;中共十八大 the 18th CPC National Congress;五位一体Five-point Strategy;习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想 Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era;民法通则和侵权责任法the General Principles of the Civil Law and Tort Liability Law

Analysis: with the continuous advancement of China's political and economic status in recent years, China has mastered a certain voice in the international community, and initially established a unique political discourse system. Therefore, some characteristic political words can be translated literally without causing difficulties for the foreign audience to understand.

=====Zero Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Zero translation does not demand any operation in translating. Some elements of the source language are directly introduced into the target language (Munday, J 2008,8). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1:中国以占全球6.6%的淡水资源和9%的耕地，养活了世界近20%的人口。
China feeds approximately 20 percent of the world's population using 6.6 percent of the fresh water resources and 9 percent of the arable land of the world.

Example 2:1949年末，全国城乡就业人员18082万人，其中城镇就业人员仅有1533万人，城镇失业率高达23.6%。
At the end of 1949 there were 180.82 million people across the country in employment, of whom only 15.33 million worked in urban areas.

Analysis: The white paper uses a large number of figures to specifically describe the changes and achievements of China since the implementation of human rights. For these large numbers, it is not necessary to translate them, but to keep the Arabic numerals directly. In this way, the translation is faithful to the original text. Besides, it is in line with the purpose of publicity translation.

=====Word-for-word translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
Word-for-word translation refers to the translation of the original sentence by word without considering the differences in morphology, syntax and semantics between the two languages (Munday, J 2008,7). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

半殖民地半封建社会 semi-colonial and semi-feudal society；改革开放 the reform and opening up；一带一路”倡议 the Belt and Road Initiative

Analysis: The above political terms widely emerge in various documents and news in China, and also appear in a high proportion in all sorts of reports of foreign media. Therefore, even if word-for-word translation of above words is taken by translators, readers can also understand translations easily without additional translation or explanation, which reflects the principle of faithfulness to the original text in skopos theory.

====Domestication Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====
In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(2006:229). Translators should try to replace the source language, literature and culture with those being popular among the target language readers, and abide by the target language norms. The advantages of domestication are that the translation is smooth, easy to be understood and accepted by the target language recipients, or to meet the specific needs of the target language readers. The defects of domestication strategy are as follows: the loss of language, literature and cultural elements in the original text, which results in the target language recipients being deprived of the opportunity to appreciate foreign languages, literature and culture. This is not conducive to the enrichment and development of the language, literature and culture of the target country and the cultural exchange among different nationalities (Venuti,1995).

=====Free Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====
The main feature of free translation is the use of paraphrase in the processing of lexical meaning and rhetoric, so as to reproduce the meaning of the original text smoothly and truly. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：四个全面”战略布局 Four-pronged Strategy

Analysis: Four pronged refers to the rake with four teeth. Through cultural borrowing, it vividly interprets a comprehensive strategy of four pronged, to illustrate that the strategic layout includes four aspects, and the contents of the four aspects should go hand in hand. This translation reproduces the lexical and syntactic structure of the source language as well as the form of the original language.

Example 2：新时代中国特色社会主义将人民对美好生活的向往作为奋斗目标。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, the people's aspiration to live a better life is the focus of all the country's work.

Analysis: The literal translation of “奋斗目标” is usually goal or purpose, but here it is translated as“the focus of all the country's work”，which emphasizes its importance in this context.

Example 3：世界各国在人权保障上没有最好，只有更好。
Every country has room for improvement in protecting human rights.

Example 4：个人权利只有与集体权利统一起来，才能实现人权的最大化。
Individual rights can only be maximized in the context of collective rights.

Example 5：新中国成立之初，社会保障尚属空白。
There was no social security system in China when the PRC was founded.

Example 6：绿水青山就是金山银山。
Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets.

Example 7：截至2018年，西藏自治区已有117名学经僧人获得了格西“拉让巴”学位，68名僧人获得了中国藏语系高级佛学院“拓然巴”高级学衔。
By 2018 a total of 117 monks from Tibet had received senior academic titles in Lhasa and 68 from the High-level Tibetan Buddhism College of China.

Analysis: In example 3, "better" is translated into "there is still room", which is another expression to convey the same idea. Although the expression is different, but the meaning is the same, which means that there are always more efforts needed to be put into protecting human rights. In example 4, it uses “in the context” to vividly deliver the condition that individual rights are combined with collective rights. In example 5, “空白”actually refers that social security has yet to be popularized to the public. So it can't be literally translated into “blank”. The free translation here is a good expression of the original meaning. “绿水” in example 6 is not to emphasize that the water is green, but to indicate all the clear and clean waters and the currents, so it is lucid waters. In example 7,“拉让巴”and “拓然巴” are all translated into “senior academic titles”, which make the readers directly clear about its real connotation.

===The Employment on the Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory===
In the translation methods, apart from zero translation, transliteration and word-for-word translation, the other five translation methods will involve the usage of various translation techniques. There are many kinds of skills, but they can be generally classified into five kinds: omission, addition, division, combination and shift (M. F. Zhang 2009, 53-60). The following is a rough analysis of the translation techniques employed in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''.

====Omission Under Translation Skills====
Omission refers to the deletion of some complicated and redundant words, sentences or even paragraphs in the original text according to the needs of morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or due to some specific cultural norms of the target language (Reiss K 1971). By doing so, the original ideas can be expressed more concisely and smoothly, and then the translation can better achieve the specific translation purposes. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 中国人权事业的命脉所在、根本所在。
the foundations for the cause of human rights in China.

Example 2: 国家提出经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设、生态文明建设“五位一体”总体布局，使每个人的经济、政治、文化、社会、环境权利能够得到充分保障。
It puts forward the Five-point Strategy (promoting economic, political, cultural, social, and environmental progress in a coordinated way), so every citizen's rights can be fully protected in each of these spheres.

Example 3：中国的粮食总产量由1949年的11318万吨提高到2018年的65789万吨，耕地灌溉面积由1949年的1594万公顷扩大到2018年的6810万公顷。
Total grain output soared from 113.18 million tons in 1949 to 657.89 million tons in 2018, and the area of irrigated farmland from 15.94 million ha in 1949 to 68.1 million ha in 2018.

Example 4：中国从根本上消除了饥饿，持续改善了人民的营养水平。
It has succeeded in improving nutrition and eradicating hunger.

Example 5：截至2018年，全国已有84%的行政村实现生活垃圾收运处置体系基本覆盖。
By 2018, 84 percent of all administrative villages were provided with garbage treatment.

Analysis: in example 1, “命脉”and “根本” are all used to express the necessity of the cause of human rights, thus one of them can be omitted. In example 2, “economic, political, cultural, social and environmental spheres” has been mentioned in the preceding sentence, so the latter one can replace them with “each of these spheres”. In example 3 the verbs in the first and second sentences are both “soar”，so the latter one can directly be left out by the rules of English grammar. Example 4 directly through the phrase “has succeeded in” to show the results. "从根本上" and “水平” of “营养水平” is to emphasize with no much necessity in the translation, whose omission does not affect the original meaning. Example 5 only use the passive voice of "provide" that can succinctly and lucidly express the original meaning.

Example 6：因为有了新中国70年，中国人民的生活才更加幸福美满；因为有了新中国70年，我们的世界才更加繁荣发展；因为有了新中国70年，人类社会才更加丰富多彩。
As a result of the developments that have taken place in the PRC over the 70 years, the people of China are living a happier life, the world is more prosperous, and human society is more diverse and colorful.

Analysis: "因为有了新中国70年" has been repeated three times to strengthen the tone. While in the translation, it is only referred once to avoid wordiness. There are several other same translations using this skill in the following text. A large number of parallelisms often appear in Chinese political texts. When studying the translation of these sentences, we can find one thing in common, that is, repeated words can be translated only once, which reflects the concise characteristics of English language.

====Addition Under Translation Skills====
Additional translation refers to the reasonable and appropriate addition of certain words, sentences or paragraphs to the translation according to the needs of the morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or subject to certain norms of the target language, so as to better express the content of the original text and better realize the specific translation purpose (Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：人权是历史的、发展的。
Human rights are a historical and developmental concept.

Example 2：人类社会发展经验 the experience gained in human social development

Example 3：中国共产党带领人民深刻总结我国社会主义建设正反两方面经验。
Under the leadership of the CPC, the people review experiences and lessons drawn from socialist construction.

Analysis: Example 1 adds “concept”；Example 2 adds “gain”, a verb, to show the source of experience；Example 3 adds “lessons”, because experiences and lessons can be regarded as a pair of phrases that always appear together.

Example 4：改善城市和农村人居环境，开展生态修复、城市修补……生活垃圾收运处置体系建设。
Efforts have been made in several areas: improving the living environment in cities……transporting and disposing of household garbage in rural areas.

Example 5：国家建立了最低生活保障制度、最低工资保障制度……中小学义务教育制度等。
Chinese government has put into place a number of systems and mechanisms, including those dealing with subsistence allowances, the minimum wage……and compulsory education (primary and middle schools).

Analysis: Summary phrases have been added in several parts of the white paper to make the text clearer. Example 4 adds “efforts” to be the subject in order to clearly state what has been done by China；example 5 uses “systems and mechanisms” to outline its specific content one by one.

Example 6：新时代中国特色社会主义着眼于实现“两个一百年”奋斗目标和中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, China focuses on achieving the Two Centenary Goals and realizing the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

Example 7：依法保障宗教信仰自由。
China protects freedom of religious belief in accordance with the law.

Example 8：建立起世界上覆盖人口最多的社会保障制度。
China has established a social security system that covers the largest population in the world.

Example 9：尊重和保障人权 We must respect and guarantee human rights.

Analysis: when translating a Chinese sentence without subject into English, the subject mentioned above should be added in translation. Because in Chinese discourse, when the subject appears, it can be omitted in later sentences. As a hypotaxis language, English is stricter with its language structure. As an important part of a sentence, the subject cannot be omitted. Therefore, in examples 6-9, the subjects of “China” and “we” are added to the sentence to make the sentence complete.

====Division Under Translation Skills====
Division refers to dividing a sentence into two or more sentences, which can effectively solve the translation difficulties of long complex sentences and satisfy the expression habits of the target language and the reading habits of the audience (Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 中国共产党的领导，是中国人民能够享有人权并不断享有更加充分人权的根本保证，是全体中国人民的利益所在、幸福所在。
The Party's leadership is the fundamental guarantee for the people of China to have access to human rights, and to fully enjoy more human rights. This leadership is therefore in the interests of all people of China, critical for their pursuit of a happy life.

Example 2: 中国特色社会主义将“人权得到切实尊重和保障”作为全面建成小康社会的重要目标，从战略层面确立了人权事业的重要地位。
In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, full respect for and protection of human rights is an important goal of China's endeavors to build a moderately prosperous society in all respects. This establishes the importance of human rights from a strategic perspective.

Example 3: 多年来，中国始终把解决人民的生存权、实现人民的发展权作为第一要务，不断解放和发展生产力，致力于消除贫困，提高发展水平，为保障人民各项权利的实现创造了基础条件。
Prioritizing people's rights to subsistence and development, China has committed to liberating and developing productive forces, eliminating poverty, and enhancing its level of development. All this has laid the foundation for fulfilling the various rights of the people.

Example 4: 坚持人民在人权事业中的主体地位，把人民利益摆在至高无上的位置，让人民过上好日子，使发展成果更多更公平地惠及全体人民，让每个人更好地发展自我、幸福生活，让每个人都能够免于恐惧、不受威胁，是实现人人享有更加充分人权的真谛所在。
For everyone to fully enjoy human rights, we must uphold the people-centered approach……and ensure a good life for the people. We must ensure that the fruits of development offer greater benefits to all the people in a fair way……and prevent them from fear and threat.

Example 5: 国际社会应秉持和平、发展、公平、正义、民主、自由的人类共同价值，维护人的尊严和权利，推动形成更加公正合理包容的全球人权治理。
The international community should uphold the shared values of humanity – peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy and freedom. It must safeguard human dignity and rights, and strive for fairer, more reasonable and inclusive global human rights governance.

Example 6: 多年来，中国政府通过改革农村土地制度，稳定和完善农村土地承包关系，大力推进农田水利设施建设，使农业综合生产能力不断提升，主要农产品产量稳定增长。
Over the years the Chinese government has carried out rural land reforms to stabilize and improve land contracting system in rural areas. With improved irrigation infrastructure, China's agriculture has seen a continuing rise in productivity and steady increase in the output of main agricultural products.

Analysis: In example 1-6, the syntax is too long and there are too many clauses. Therefore, in order to avoid the syntax being too complicated, it is necessary to split it. At the same time, there are many non-subject sentences in Chinese while English sentences usually have subjects. Therefore, when translating Chinese sentences without subject into English, translators need to complete the subject of most sentences according to the context. For example, add pronouns “it”, “this”, or start with preposition "with". In this case, the translated sentences will make the readers more relaxed and comfortable in reading.

====Combination Under Translation Skills====
Combination refers to combining two or more sentences in the original text into one sentence. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 1982年，第五届全国人大五次会议通过了现行宪法。宪法明确规定了中国社会主义民主的主要内容和基本形态。
In 1982, the Fifth Session of the Fifth NPC adopted the current Constitution of the PRC, which clearly defines the substance and basic form of socialist democracy.

Example 2: 中国努力通过发展增进人民福祉，实现更加充分的人权保障。China strives to enhance people's wellbeing through development in order to better protect their human rights.

Analysis: Example 1 combines the two sentences with “which”, making the text more compact. In example 2, the combination is realized by “in order to”, which reflects the logical connection between sentences, and the purpose is clearer.

====Shift Under Translation Skills====
=====Shift From Active Voice to Passive Voice=====
There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1：在新中国成立前夕，通过了具有临时宪法作用的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》。
The Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, which was adopted on the eve of the founding of the PRC and served as the provisional Constitution of China.

Example 2：第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议通过的《中华人民共和国宪法》。
The 1954 Constitution of the PRC, which was adopted at the First Session of the First National People's Congress (NPC).

Example 3：应当尊重人权发展道路的多样性
Diversity in developing human rights should be respected.

Example 4：尊重和保障人权
Human rights are respected and guaranteed.

Example 5：在当代中国的人权实践中，既重视集体人权的发展，又重视个人人权的保障。
In China, equal attention has been paid to developing collective rights and ensuring individual rights.

Analysis: Chinese uses more active voice while English more passive voice. Therefore, in the translation of the original sentences, the subject is put in front and the passive voice is used. In addition, Chinese often express the logical relations between words and sentences by context and word order while English needs clear connectives to express them. Therefore, it is often necessary to add connective words to express logical relations in translation from Chinese to English.

=====Class Shift=====
There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':

Example 1: 从1950年起，对国营厂矿交通企业的生产和管理制度进行民主改革，建立工厂管理委员会和职工代表大会。
The democratic reform of the production and management of state-owned factories, mines, and transportation operators that started in 1950 set up factory management committees and workers' congresses in these entities.
Here the verb“民主改革”is shifted to a noun, and leads this sentence, which stresses the role of it.

Example 2人民基本居住条件显著改善。Improved housing conditions.

Example 3饮水安全获得切实保障。Safe drinking water.

Example 4国民健康水平持续提高。Better health for the people.

Example 5 经济凋敝、民不聊生 a shattered economy, a destitute populace

Analysis: In example 2-4, all the verbs are shifted to adjectives in above sentences, which become neater and terser. In example 5,“民不聊生” means ordinary people is too hard and poor to survive themselves. If just literally translate it like above, the sentence will not so succinct or regular as well as not conform to the sentence structure of four characters in parallelism.

===Conclusion===
This text introduces ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''. Because the white paper is a typical central document published by government, propagating the concept of human rights, practical measures and gains, and takes the comprehensive and accurate introduction as the purpose. What’s more, it is closely related to national interests and national image.

Based on its political characteristics, this paper studies its translation strategies, methods and techniques from the perspective of Skopos theory, and finds that the difference between the Chinese version and the English version is mainly due to the different readers. The English version is aimed at English audiences, and linguistic form and culture in England are different from China’s. For example, English uses more passive voice, while Chinese uses active voice; when translating Chinese without subject into English, except those passive voice translations, the correct subject should be added into the translation; English focuses more on logic and connection while Chinese on the meaning and content of text.

The differences may affect readers' understanding of the translation. Therefore, in the process of translation, translators should use appropriate translation techniques and methods according to their differences. Moreover, for such a political report, there are many official words, long sentences and heavy emphases on tone. Thus, the techniques of literal translation, division, addition and subtraction are frequently used.

From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation takes into account not only the function and purpose of the original text, but also the receptivity of the audience and the effect of the translation. Through the study of this white paper, we can see that translators need to stand on the perspective of the audience in the white paper translation, should shift from Chinese language patterns to western with facility, use appropriate translation methods, strategies and techniques, and be faithful to the original content in order to translate political intent clearly and accurately. In this way, misinterpretation, leaking and unclear translation can be avoided, so as to let foreign audiences can quickly and efficiently receive the information that the original text intends to pass on. This study can provide theoretical basis and good ideas for the future translators to find the best translation methods and strategies.

===References===
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[2]Munday, J. (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications'' (2nd ed.) . London &New York: Routledge.

[3]M. F. Zhang. (2009). Text Typology Theory and Its Implications for Translation Studies. ''Chinese Translators Journal'', vol.30.

[4]N. Zhao. (2014). Translation of Categorical Words in Chinese from the Perspective of Thinking Difference between China and the West, ''Journal of Anyang Normal University.''

[5]Nida, E A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J. Brilll.

[6]NORD C. (2002). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity—functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[7]Pinkham Joan. (2000). ''The Translator's guide to Chinglish''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

[8]Reiss K. (1971). Text Types, ''Translation Types and Translation Assessment//Chesterman A. Readings in Translation Theory''. Finland: Oy Finn Lectura Ab.

[9]Shuttleworth, M. &M. Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[10]Vinay, J. P &J. Darbelnet. (2020). ''A Methodology for Translation''. Trans. by J.C. Sager &M. Hamel. In Venuti, L.(ed.).

[11]Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China.(2019).''The Journal of Human Rights''.

[12]VERMEER HANS. J. (1989). ''Skopos and Commission in Translational Action.'' ANDREW CHESTERMA. Readings in Translation. Helsinki: Oy Finn Leetura Ab.

[13]He Jiaying 何嘉莹, et al.(2020). "翻译目的论视角下英语新闻的编译策略——基于江苏某科技组织微信公众号平台和南方某高校外国语学院英文网站建设." [Translation Strategy Is Based on the Skopos Theory: The Construction of English News Website Based on the Official Account of WeChat, A Science And Technology Organization in Jiangsu, and the English Website of A Foreign Language College in Southern China.] 科技传播 Science And Technology Communication.

[14]Luo Mazhang 罗新璋.(1984). 翻译论集[Translation Volume]. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: Commercial Press.

[15]Ma Huijuan, Miao Ju 马会娟，苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论宣读[Reading of Contemporary Western Translation Theories].北京：外语研究与教学出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Research And Teaching Press.

[16]Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of " Translation Strategies ", " Translation Methods " And " Translation Techniques "] 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal.

[17]Information Office of the State Council of the people's Republic of China 中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. (2019). "为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年" [Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China]. 人民日报 People’s Daily.

==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590 MTI==

<center>胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590</center>

===Abstract===

This paper is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects. In addtion, the current challenges should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.

===Key Words===

Translator’s subjectivity; Invisibility; Visibility.

===题目===

译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”

===摘要===

本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。

===关键词===

译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。

===Introduction===

The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, and both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their personal views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)

For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but the role of translators in translation activities has always been neglected. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that oriented toward target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

===Translator's Subjectivity===

Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention. On the one hand, the traditional translation view, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. "And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity" (Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.

As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until the 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment. "And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed"(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). "Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively" (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.

====1. Definition of Translator's Subjectivity====

According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”. (Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)

====2. Related Theories on Translator's Subjectivity====

In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since the 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.

The studies on translator’s subjectivity of some typical schools will be introduced as follows.

=====2.1 Polysystem Theory=====

This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that "elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems" (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. "And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school" (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).

=====2.2 Manipulation School=====

The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. "From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose" (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that "translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.

====3. Factors Influencing the Translator's Subjectivity====

The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

=====3.1 The historical background of translator=====

The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility. Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese.

Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

=====3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence=====

The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expressions. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)

This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.

=====3.3 Understanding of the original=====

In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes," A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets ". There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text.

Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator in China, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)

In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. Under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this context, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)

===The Influence of Translator's Invisibility and Visibility on Translator's Subjectivity===

In literary translation, the word "invisibility" refers to "the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion"; while "apparent" is put forward according to the opposite of "invisibility", which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, the fact is that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding.Translator should fully make use of it. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)

Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators. Specifically, they can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's "appearance".(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)

1. Translator's invisibility

The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.

According to the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve "transparency" and "invisibility". The "transparency" of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the "invisibility" refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text. "The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis." (Xu Jun, 2003).

In a word, "faithfulness" and "equivalence" should be achieved in translation. The criterion of "faithfulness" also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity. The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be "invisible", but in essence, this "invisibility" is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)

2. Translator's visibility

In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to "resist" and adopt poor translation. "Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added." (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the "resistance" translation strategy to retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation. In this context, the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator. (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)

===The Challenge of Translator's Subjectivity===

As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.

1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity

With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time.

Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play.

But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity

In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood.

The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

From this point of view, professionalization also prose challenges on the translator's subjectivity. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)

3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative

The translator's "invisibility" and "manifestation" are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. "Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective "uncertainty" needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed " (Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010).

However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of "overcorrection". In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology in the historical background of the translator. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)

When there is a conflict the ideology between the translator and the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)

===Conclusion===

Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.

Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to "invisibility" and "manifestation" in contemporary literary translation, we should know "invisibility" when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of "invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible", we can better understand the meaning of "invisibility" of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of "manifestation" when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of "invisible" or "explicit" in translation is worth considering.

==='''References'''===

Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979). "Polysystem Theory". Poetics Today (1) 287.

Hermans, Theo. (1985). "The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation". London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.

Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017). 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构 [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译 Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.

Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019). 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's "invisibility" and "manifestation" in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example]. 智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.

Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰. (2014). 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性 [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.

Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011). 论译者的“隐形”和“显形” [On the translator's "invisibility" and "visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.

Shufen Huang. (2019). “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100.

Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020). 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性 [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.

ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨. (2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起 [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.

Zhiwei Gu. (2017). "On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity", English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing Japanese Language and Literature==

<center>马智星 Ma Zhixing 202020080625</center>

===Abstract===
Throughout the history of western translation, as the subject of translation, the change of translator's identity reveals a process from "invisibility" to "appearance". In different historical periods, different translators have never stopped discussing the "invisibility" and "appearance" of translators. From the perspective of historical development, this paper examines the different evolution of Lefevere's operation theory and Venuti's invisible translation theory in the western translation history, so as to analyze the change of the translator's identity and discuss the translator's subjectivity.

===Key Words===
translator's view;translation behavior;invisibility;

===摘要===
纵观西方翻译史，作为翻译主体的译者，其身份的变化彰显了一个由“隐身”到“现身”的过程。不同历史时期，不同翻译家们对于译者的“隐身”和“现身”的讨论，从未停止。本文从历史发展的角度，考察西方翻译史中勒菲弗尔的操作论和韦努迪的译者隐身翻译理论的不同演变，以此分析译者身份的变化，从而对译者的主体性进行探讨。

===关键词===
翻译观；译者行为；隐形

===Ⅰ.Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory===
In the 1980s, culture, rather than text, emerged as the Unit of translation, bringing cultural studies into a new stage of translation theory: Cultural Theory of translation. This change is called the "cultural turn" in the field of translation studies. Andrea, a representative of the Cultural School of Translation Studies, is an important theoretical figure in the field of contemporary Western Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. The translation studies school originally originated in Europe, and Lefevere's profound insight enriched and advanced the further development of this theory in the United States and the world.

Lefevere's manipulation theory is a well-known theory in the Cultural School of Translation Studies. Lefevere regards translation as a rewriting of the original and a manipulation of the original, which breaks the traditional thinking of evaluating translation with the original as the criterion. Lefevere's manipulation theory generally refers to the process of translation, adaptation, compilation, criticism and editing of literary works. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and a form of creating another text image Literary criticism, biography, film, drama, parody, reader's guide, compilation of history, criticism and editing are all rewriting of the text, which are all forms of creating another text image. In other words, translation creates the literary and cultural images of the original text, the original author, and the original text. And all rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics.(Bassnett & Lefevere, 1990:8 )

Lefevere studies translation in a broad sociocultural context, emphasizing the role of ideology, mainstream poetics and culture. Translation is bound to serve certain ideology and poetics. In his view, "rewriting" is "manipulating" . It can "manipulate" literature and "culture" , the positive aspect of which is to help the evolution of literature and society through the introduction of new concepts, new literary genres and new means of expression. The rewriting of different historical periods should be controlled by ideology and mainstream poetics, and finally be related to power and become a means to serve it. The three elements of Lefevere's manipulation theory are set out in translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. In his opinion, translation can not truly reflect the original work, mainly because it is always manipulated by three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.

'''1.Ideological'''

ideology refers to a system of ideas that reflects the interests and requirements of a particular economic form, class or social group. Its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. . Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communicative activity, will inevitably be affected by ideology. Lefevere points out that ideology has a great influence on translation, which exerts a subtle influence on the translator's thinking and translation activities. Ideology influences the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Under the control of ideology, the translator may add, delete or change the original text at will, making the translation serve his own political purposes.
At the same time, different translators will form their own ideology because of their different personal experience, educational level, social and cultural environment, etc. . If a translated work wants to enter into the social and cultural system of the target language, it is bound to be restricted by the corresponding social and ideological standards. If the translation violates or offends ideological taboos, it will be difficult to spread smoothly in the target language culture, and may even be banned. Through the analysis of famous translators such as Lin Shu's works, we can clearly feel that it was controlled and influenced by the ideology and poetics of Chinese society at that time. Ideological manipulation of translation can be reflected in the influence on the purpose of translated novels, the choice of translated texts and the application of translation strategies.-

'''2.Poetics'''

Poetics is a theory about poetry and the study of poetry and its techniques. It is also a theory about literature and art. The formation of poetics occurs in a certain period, which is often a choice for some types of practice at that time, while excluding other types. According to Lefevere, the methods of translation adopted by translators are carried out under the restriction of certain poetic factors. The study of poetics is as small as a word, as large as a sentence, the style of the whole text and the translation strategies. Translation greatly influences the interpenetration of different literary systems, not only by successfully introducing the image of a writer or a work into another literary system, but also in the introduction of new literary means into a certain poetics.

In lefevere's opinion, as the manipulator of translation, such rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because in the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. The rewriting of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriter works. In order to conform to the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the work is rewritten and to be accepted by as many readers as possible, the rewriter often makes some adjustments to the original work. Some masterpieces have also been dealt with to varying degrees so that they can be adapted to the cultural background of different social and historical conditions.

In the development of translation theory, more and more attention has been paid to the indispensability of poetics in translation. Poetics is concerned with what literature should or could be, and has two components, "One is a list of literary techniques, genres, themes, typical characters and situations, and symbols; the other is an idea of what role literature plays or should play in the overall social system. " To a certain extent, the poetic factors also determine the social role that the translation will play and the degree of its influence. The aesthetic sense of poetry in a work will disappear if the significance is emphasized but the poetic factors and the literary brilliance are ignored.

'''3.The Power of Patronage'''

Lefevere regards literary translation and other forms of rewriting as one of the social systems. This literary system has two controlling factors, one is the internal factor of the literary system, which is made up of various professionals such as critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is a patron who works outside the system and is "generally more interested in the ideology of literature than in the poetics of Literature" , "The powers (people or institutions) that promote or discourage literary reading, writing or rewriting, such as religious groups, classes, government departments, publishing houses, mass media organizations, can also be personal forces" (Lefevere, 1992:17)

In Lefevere's theory of the three elements, the most important factor is the power of the sponsor, who is always in charge of the whole process of translation. Translation itself is not an isolated act, but closely related to political, social and economic factors. Most translators translate well and safely within the space allowed by the social and political authority of their times. As "any force that may contribute to the production and dissemination of literary works and may hinder, prohibit and destroy literary works" (Chen Dehong, Zhang Nanfeng, 2000:176) , the power of patron can play a role through ideology, economic interests and social status.

Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the trend of translation activities, the development of translated literature and the social status of translators. For example, Yan Fu, as a translator and thinker, although he had his own clear goals and ideas in selecting translation materials, he was also an official appointed by the Qing government, therefore, his selection of translation materials is also controlled by the ideology of the sponsors. There is also a series of translations, translated or edited by Lin Yutang, that are closely related to the requests and suggestions of his patrons, the Pearl Buck and her husband.Lefevere's manipulation theory has opened up a new perspective for translation studies, which has shifted researchers'attention from the internal factors of the text to the external factors of the text, such as ideology, poetics and the power of patronage, this is of great significance to translation studies. Manipulation theory broadens the horizon of translation studies from text to culture. In recent years, with the rise of the Cultural School of Translation, the Study of translation from the perspective of the three elements of manipulation theory has become increasingly attractive.

=== Ⅱ. Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility===

'''2.1the Translator's Invisibility'''

Lawrence Venuti, an Italian American scholar, is an important representative and advocate of deconstructive translation theory. His translation thoughts are mainly concentrated in his monograph translator's invisibility published in 1995, his deconstructive translation essays rethinking and translation scandal.n his monograph the translator's invisibility, Venuti puts forward the term "invisibility", which is used to describe the status of translators in ontemporary British and American translation circles. He pointed out that the "invisibility" of the translation makes the reader unable to see the translator, as if he were reading the original rather than the translation.

There are two reasons why the translator is actually "invisible". First of all, translators themselves tend to translate into "fluent" English. Secondly, the way the target readers read the translated text. Whether it is prose, poetry, fiction or other types of subjects, most people accept that the ranslation is fluent in reading, without any unique language or style. It seems that the translation has reflected the author's substantive significance, and the translation seems to be not the translation but the original work.However, the premise of translation is that different languages and cultures are different and there is no absolute equivalence between them. This fluent translation method not only ignores the relationship between the author and the translator, the source text and the target text, obliterates the translator's interpretation, due status and efforts, but also conceals the differences between languages and cultures.

Therefore, Venuti puts forward the "resistance" translation strategy and advocates the translator to show his form. This kind of resistance is the courage to admit the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language and culture, and to show such differences, and even deviate from the original text. The translator should deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text to avoid the smooth translation, so that readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.

The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.

'''2.2 Foreignization -- the Core of Venuti's Translation Thought''''

In 1813, Schleiermacher pointed out in his speech on different translation methods: "either the translator should keep the author at home and let the reader approach the author as much as possible, or the translator should keep the reader at ease and let the author approach the reader as much as possible." The former shows the language and cultural differences in foreign texts and sends readers abroad, which belongs to foreignization translation; the latter, centering on nationalism, naturalizes foreign values into the target culture and invites the original author to China.

Different from Schleiermacher, Venuti believes that foreignization translation can "suppress the violence of racial center in translation" and suppress the "violent" domestication of translation cultural values in English speaking countries. Therefore, foreignization translation is also known as resistance translation, which means that the translator highlights the foreign identity of the foreign text in the translation works by adopting non fluent translation techniques, and protects the original text from the control of the cultural ideology of the target language, so that he is no longer the "implicit person" of translation. Through the selection of foreign texts and foreignization translation, it challenges the cultural hegemony of English speaking countries and achieves the goal of cultural exchange.

'''2.3The Progress of Foreignization Translation Theory'''

Venuti considers translation in the context of society and culture and criticizes the way in which foreign literature is assimilated into the target language by domestication. He proposed and advocated foreignization translation strategy or "resistance strategy", emphasizing that the translation should maintain the flavor of the foreign language text and let readers feel the exotic customs. This kind of translation strategy is not only helpful for the translator to "manifest" in translation, but also more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement in the context of world cultural integration.

Contrary to the traditional view, hold that foreignization translation is a kind of recreation, and there is no strict boundary between creation, translation and research. The original is not self-made, but the author uses the long-standing cultural materials, after reorganization, according to some values. Different cultural places are the places for readers to understand. Therefore, Venuti believes that translation should not deny the necessity of "reserving differences" under the pretext of "seeking common ground". He believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness, on the contrary, it is "the misuse of faithfulness". It will not only lose some characteristics of the original language, but also add new things. As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed..

'''2.4The Limitations of Foreignization Translation Theory'''

Translation is an activity of cross language and cultural communication, but the premise that can not be ignored is that the source language and the target language are different in ideology, values, habitual expression, logical thinking and so on. Venuti's foreignization strategy is to resist cultural hegemony when translating a weak culture into a strong one. For the weak culture and the marginalized and excluded culture, when they are translated into the strong culture by means of foreignization, the strategy is undoubtedly the best way to resist the strong culture and values and express ideas and culture. However, when a strong culture is translated into a weak culture in the same way, foreignization translation is likely to play a role in boosting the flames. In the face of superior British and American cultures, foreignized translation may subvert the norms of the target language, destroy the target language and the target language culture, or become the accomplice of cultural colonialists inadvertently.

Although foreignization translation reflects the characteristics of the source language and has positive significance for cultural communication, it imposes the language system and cultural phenomena in the source language on the target readers. For ordinary readers, without familiar language expression and the same cultural knowledge background, reading foreignization translation of foreign text will not only feel that the translation is obscure and difficult to understand, but also will gradually alienate or even exclude the foreign text. In this way, foreign texts will not be accepted by the public and can only be shelved.

Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.

The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.

==='''Ⅲ.My Thought of "Visibility"&"Invisibility" in Translation Behavior'''===
Venuti believes that in order to translate a good work, the translator must eliminate his sense of racial and cultural superiority, and try to retain the
language style of the original text, so that the target language readers can be exposed to the original foreign language and culture, so as to promote the language and cultural exchange between countries. His foreignization translation strategy can make readers better understand foreign language characteristics, foreign culture, local customs, traditional customs and aesthetic habits.

By reading foreign versions, readers can learn different ways of thinking and language expression, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their own language and cultural knowledge. With the continuous development and evolution of language, foreignization translation plays an important role in promoting cultural exchange and absorbing vocabulary and language structure from different countries. It is precisely because of foreignization translation that many foreign words, such as sofa, salon, clone, generation gap, hot spot and so on, are often used in newspapers, magazines and literary works, which greatly enriches our language and culture. And the words developed from Chinese, such as kowtow, Taichi and kungfu, also have a firm foothold in English dictionaries. Under the background of world cultural integration, this kind of translation strategy is more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement.

The purpose of vernuti's foreignization translation is to pursue cultural diversity. This strategy can effectively resist the interference and tampering of British and American cultures on the inequality of weak cultures, so as to curb ethnocentrism and cultural hegemony. At the same time, he claims that the translator's "manifestation" is of positive significance to the affirmation of the translator's value and to the improvement of the translator's status.
However, foreignization translation is not the best way to be universally accepted, and there are also limitations. Foreignization translation requires too much knowledge of readers and is not suitable for translating non literary texts. The strategy adopted in translation plays an important role in the translation, which determines what kind of translation will be produced in the end. Domestication translation and foreignization translation have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they play an irreplaceable role in each other. Therefore, in practice, no matter what translation strategy the translator chooses, he should consider the differences between readers' receptivity, text type and ideology, and strive to find a balance between different languages and cultures to achieve the best effect of equal communication.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===
Throughout the history of western translation, we find that, in addition to the special historical period, the translator has been gradually pushed from behind the scenes to the front of the screen. The traditional translation theory holds that translators must abide by the principle of faithfulness, and there is only one correct translation. In this way, translators begin to become "invisible people". People ignore that translators are independent individuals in social life and have different understanding of the world, just like everyone else. Translation is a subjective activity. Translators play an important role in intercultural communication in the process of translation. Therefore, we should consider the translator's subjectivity in translation studies.

===Reference===

Chen, Fukang.[陈福康].(1992).中国译学理论史稿[M].上海外语教育出版社.(4):28-31

Guo,Jianzhong.[郭建中].(2000).当代美国翻译理论[C].湖北教育出版社.(6):31-22

Shi,Jianwei.[施建伟].(1999).林语堂传[M].十月文艺出版社.(8):23-24.

Chen,Dehong/Zhang,nanfeng.[陈德鸿,张南峰].(2000)西方翻译理论精选[M].香港城市大学出版社.(3)25-21

Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M]. Pinter Publishers.(3)26-13

Lefevere,Andre.Translation,(1992a).Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M]. Routledge.（6）28-4

==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译==

<center>胡瑾 Hu Jin </center>

===Abstract===

With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.

===Key words===
business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation

===摘要===

随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。

===关键词===

商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译

===Introduction===

Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also rising, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)

This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract. (Jin Di 1998，115)

The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.
The third chapter is the main part of the article, namely the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)

===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===

This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively.

====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====

As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been highly valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for avoiding trade frictions effectively. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)

However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. Since the oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)

====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====

Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contract, processing contract, foreign labor contract, and agency agreement, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 26)

Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)

====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====

English business contract style is solemn with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)

=====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====

As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. For the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)

First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaic words most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)

In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. Strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)

Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. And his is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)

However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)

Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledges and terminologies. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)

=====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====

Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc.
The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. And they are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed at the beginning, the middle or the end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)

In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, while interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)

Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the behavior agent and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)

=====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====

The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure. In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)

The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)

This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)

===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===

This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.

====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====

Nida first proposed the “dynamic equivalence” theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely “formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 )

Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translationese. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)

After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced “dynamic equivalence” with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of “function”.

On the question of which level of equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)

In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into “maximum functional equivalence” and “minimum functional equivalence” since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called “maximum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while “minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)

====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====

Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)

Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86)
Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)

At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)

====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====

At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)

Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)

===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===

This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)

====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====

Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)

=====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====

The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)

Example1:“The balance 80% (Eighty percent) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties.”

译文：“合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360天予以支付。”

Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression. (Liao Ying 2005, 23)

Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”

译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”

In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 34)

Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only).”

译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”

In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained. (Liao Ying 2005, 43)

=====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====

Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)

Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.”

译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”

In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it. (Liao Ying 2005, 50)

Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows:

译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。

In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 53)

Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.

译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。

In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 63)

=====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====

“Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)

Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer.

译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。

Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.”

译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”

In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style. (Miao Xipu 2011, 113)

=====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====

English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)

Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”

译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”

In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 83)

Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.

译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。

In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)

====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====

Cliches are commonly used in official documents and usually have fixed translation methods. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)

=====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====

There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)

Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”

译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”

Example2: This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument.

译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。

Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 140)

=====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====

Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively show the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)

Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below:

译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同：

Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion.

译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。

From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example. (Miao Xipu 2011, 158)

=====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====

Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)

Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product.

译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。

This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. (Miao Xipu 2011, 190)

Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld.

译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。

This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents. (Miao Xipu 2011, 192)

Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion.

译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。

This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. (Liao Ying 2005, 103)

====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====

The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)

=====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====

Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)

Example:
Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term.

译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。

Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence. (Liao Ying 2005, 213)

=====3.3.2 Text Format=====

As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)

Contract No: ××××××

Date: Aug. ××,2013

The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××)

Legal Address: ××××××

Representative: ××××××

Tel/Fax: ××××××

The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××)

Legal Address: ×××××

Representative: ××××××

Tel/Fax: ××××××

译文：合同编号：××××××

日期：2013年8月×号

买方：××××××（以下简称××××）

注册地址：××××××

代表人：××××××

电话/传真：××××××

卖方：××××××（以下简称××××）

注册地址：××××××

代表人：××××××

电话/传真：××××××

Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of translation and original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)

===Conclusion===

To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:
In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:
In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of language expression in translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)

As to language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research. (JIn Di 1998, 310)

Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research should be broadened in the future. (JIn Di 1998, 310)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reference===

* Beekman, J. & John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974.

* Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.

* Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.

* Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.

* Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.

* Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.

* Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

* Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.

* Dun Guangang 顿官刚. (2002). 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译 [Characteristics and Translation of Business English Vocabulary]. 山东外语教学 Shandong Foreign Language Teaching Journal (1) 112-114.

* Jin Di 金堤. (1998). ''等效翻译探索''[Translation Theory and Practice Series]. Beijing; China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司.

* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1998). ''文体与翻译''[English Varities and Translation]. Beijing: China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司.

* Liao Ying 廖瑛. (2005). ''实用公关英语''[Practical English PublicRelations]. Shanghai: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经济贸易大学出版社.

* Ma Huijuan 马会娟. (2005). 论商务文本翻译标准多元化 [On Diversification of Business Text Translation Standards]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 24-154.

* Miao Xipu 苗锡璞. (2011). 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译 [Business English Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory]. 内蒙古财经学院学报 Journal of Inner Mongolia (1)78-238.

* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史''[A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

* Wang Yang 汪洋. (2009). 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧 [The Lexical and Syntactic Features of Business Contract and its Translation]. 科技文汇 The Science Education Article Collects (2) 13-47.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie 202070080626 MTI英语笔译==

===Abstract===
In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.

===Key words===
Identity of translator, Translation activities, Roles of today’s translator

===题目===
论翻译活动中译者的身份

===摘要===
翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。

===关键词===
译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色

===Introduction===
It is vital for translators to play roles well in the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and much attention should be paid to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.

===1.The Importance and Necessity of valuing the issue of translator's identity===
Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operations, cultural characteristics, artistic creations, aesthetic standards, and humanistic characters. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）

The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. The translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new look, but also decide which new look to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated works. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.（Zhong and Zhou, 2006）

===2.Different Kinds of Roles Translators Have played in History===
====2.1 The Identity of Translator Under the Source Language Centralism====
Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meaning and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.

=====2.1.1 Translator as a Servant=====
There are certain common cognition and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the "servant role" both in the East and the West.

John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the "slave" can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）

American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.

Yang Jiang also said in her book ''Experience of Failures-Trial Translation'' "At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation." (Jin and Huang, 2019)

The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so the translator is like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restore the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings to meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations.

Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public to translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of "seeing things but not people". Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.

=====2.1.2 Translator as An Invisible Person=====
One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's "invisibility" and "visibility" have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both "invisibility" or "visibility" are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.

Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph ''The Translators Invisibility'' A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. And the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)

Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and stated in the article ''The Translation of Lin Shu'' that "The highest standard of literary translation is 'sublimation'." In translation, if you can not only not show the traces of being blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it will meet requirements of "sublimation". In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as "the transmigration of souls" of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）

The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph ''Les Belles Infideles'' "The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can't even feel its existence."

The "invisible" identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the "transparency" of the translation and the "invisibility" of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's "invisibility" has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）

=====2.1.3 Translator as a Painter=====
Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting. In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement, “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.

====2.2The Identity of Translator Under the Translator Centralism====
In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasized the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators.

=====2.2.1 Translator as a Manipulator=====
The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put "loyalty" and "faithfulness" in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text.

=====2.2.2 Translator as a Writer=====
Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power.

Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value. They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.

=====2.2.3 Translator as a Conqueror=====
As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror.

=====2.2.4 The Translator's "Independent" Status=====
Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.

=====2.2.5 Translator as a Creative Rebel=====
The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange.（Escarpit, 1987）On the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.

=====2.2.6 Translator as a Language Quality Controller(Li and He, 2018)=====
In recent years, with the development of the world economy and internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.

===3.The Features of the Changes of Translator’s Identity and Its Complexity===
====3.1 The Identity of Translators Changed from Invisible to Visible, from Subordinate to Dominant, from Author-centered to Translator-centered. ====
At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of "invisible man", "slave", "servant" and "painter". The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized.

Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as "manipulator", "writer", "creative rebel", "conqueror “and so on.

Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as "language quality controller", "learners of new technology and new knowledge" and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity.

Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles". On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.

====3.2 The Identity and Status of Translators are Closely connected with the Era ====
Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan "women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language" emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of "women" in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals.

====3.3 Complexity of Translation Activities and the Identity of Translators====
In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because translators different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as "learner of new knowledge and new technology", "selector of the style", and "controller of language quality". Translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.

===4. The Roles of Today’s Translators===
====4.1 Dancers in Shackles. ====
Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, a servant or a master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles. The translator should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.

====4.2 Megaphones of Real Problems.====
Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.

====4.3 Learners who Keep up With the Time.====
Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.

====4.4 Promoters of Cultural Communication.====
Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.

===Conclusion===
The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.

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[11]Yao Yaping姚亚平（1996），''中国当代修辞学''[Chinese Contemporary Rhetoric]，Guang Zhou:: Guangdong Education Press广州：广东教育出版社：37

[12]Jin Shenghua金圣华，Huang Guobin黄国斌（1996），''因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈''[It's Hard to See Cleverness-A Discussion on Famous Translation Experience]，HongKong:Sanlian Bookstore Co., Ltd.香港：三联书店有限公司

==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang 202070080635 Interpretation英语口译==
<center>顾东方 Gu Dongfang </center>

===Abstract===
In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization .

In The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.
===Key words===
domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies

===摘要===
在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。

===关键词===
归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略

=== Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===
Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.

Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author". In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.（Wang Ying 2007）

===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===
Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms "literal translation" and "free translation" are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be "expressive" and "elegant".

Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored.

Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 06:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression.

Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, "A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original". Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu.

Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original.

Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language.

There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice.

Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.(Wang Ying 2007)

===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===

===The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===
The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.

At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the translation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.

The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of "domestication". He said: "The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is." This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of "foreignization" .

In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the "invisibility" of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.(Liu Ping 2008)

===Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===
The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.

At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers.

The translator should not focus on how to be "faithful to the original", but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.
With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was "I'd rather be faithful than smooth", and advocated "preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible" and "the need for exoticism".

After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, "foreignization" has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that "Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary".(Liu Ping 2019)

===Domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===

====The relationship between culture and language====

In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system.

The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context.

Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.（Wang Hongwei 2002）

==== Translatability and untranslatability of cultures====
On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that "all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces.

In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other." It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, "Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication." Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.

On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase "客上天然居，居然天客" is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.(Wang Hongwei 2007)

====Factors influencing cultural translation strategies====

=====Motives and objectives of translation=====

Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods

=====Text type=====

Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed.

The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term "documentary translation" is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the "strength" and "clarity" of the message. " in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language.

Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve "strength" and "clarity". Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written.

Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible.

This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.(Wang Hongwei2007)

=====Acceptance by readers=====
In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader.

This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that "Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly."(Wang Hongwei2007)

===Cultural Schools of Translation===--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of "Cultural Turn of Translation", which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture.

In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong "revolutionary" element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be "subversive" to the previous translation theories.

This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity.

Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people.

For example, Lv Jun proposes that "translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.(Wang Hongwei2007)

====Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation====
标题大写--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: "The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of "accuracy", "readability" and "acceptability". (Zhou Yongkun 2019)

例一：常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。

Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.

“螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means "following the majority of people to speak or act". A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero" is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning "only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines". Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: "Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore", which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn.

The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit

例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。

There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.

Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, "Xishi" and "Chanjuan", to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate "Xishi" and "Chanjuan", nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties.

Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.(Zhou Yongkun 2019)

In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.

5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation
注意标题格式--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion.

With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms "internet", "gene", "blue print", "blue print" and "blue print" are used to refer to the "Internet", "gene", "blue print" and "blue print". "Time is money", "ivory tower", "washroom".... (crocodile tears), "black humor" , and "qi gong" ), "taijiquan" , "kong fu" , "typhon”

These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.
（Wang Ying 2007）
例一.打破铁饭碗

Break the”iron rice bowl”

"Iron rice bowl" is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare "rice bowl" to an occupation, while "iron rice bowl" refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of "domestication", but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.

例二.下海

A.to jump into the sea of business

B.To turn professional

In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.

Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the "cold shoulder"? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.

例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”

A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”

B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”

Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, "God" is replaced by "Heavenly Father," which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture.

However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.

The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.（Wang Ying 2007）

===Conclusion===
With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of "foreign" translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of "cultural globalization".

It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to "alienation" translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts. (Xiong Bing 2003)

===Reference===
Wang Ying王瑛. "跨文化翻译中的归化和异化." 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.

Zhou Yongkun周永堃. "归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例." 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.

Wang Hongwei王红卫. "跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略." 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.

Xiong Bing熊兵. "文化交流翻译的归化与异化." 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.

Liu Ping刘苹. "中国翻译史上的归化和异化." 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.

no numbers, attention to the detailed request on the bottom of the home page--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of "Political Equivalence", 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu, MTI 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
With the development of globalization, the political exchanges among countries is more frequent, and the translation of political discourse has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. The translation of political discourse is challenging, not only because it is related to important issues such as the relationship between countries, national status and political attitudes, but also because political vocabulary is developmental and new words are constantly coming into the political vocabulary, and some political words will add new connotations with the development of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the "Political Equivalence" based on Eugene Nida's "Functional Equivalence" theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of "political", "dynamic" and "balanced". On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of "Political Equivalence".

===Key words===
political equivalence; Chinese political discourse; translation strategies

===摘要===
随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。

===关键词===
政治等效; 中国政治话语; 翻译策略

===1. Introduction of Background===

Political discourse is a vehicle of communication or one kind of discourse behaviors used to articulate a country's foreign policy, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including both oral and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).

===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===

This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to promote the political communication between countries and show the country's political attitudes, theories and policies to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only an obligatory task for translators, but also of great significance to the development of translation studies.

===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===

The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it faithfully to the target language. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are quite few equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. In particular, Chinese political discourse is often presented metaphorically which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of the times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.

===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===

(1)The proposal and connotation of the "political equivalence" standard

In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term "韬光养晦" which led to the propaganda "China threat theory". Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of "political equivalence" for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political ideas of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).

In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the "political equivalence" translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic. Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to maintain a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on any one of them, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. As political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations.(Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35)

In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of "political equivalence + aesthetic representation" on the basis of the translation standard of "political equivalence" (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. In addition to meeting the requirements of "political equivalence" mentioned above, this standard also requires to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account.

In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of "political equivalence + image representation" based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing "image reproduction" and "aesthetic reproduction" is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text.

In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic events in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the "political equivalence" standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize "political equivalence"(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).

(2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida

"Firstly, the 'equivalence' emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or the writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the concept of 'dynamic' proposed by Nida in 'functional equivalence' theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience "(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).

In a word, the translation standard of "political equivalence" is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, providing theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.

===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===

First of all, translators should grasp not only the meaning of the original text, but also the political intention of the speaker or the writer, because sometimes the literal meaning of Chinese words in the political discourse cannot fully represent the real intention of the speaker or the writer.What translators should do is to learn more about the related background knowledge before translating and keep pace with the worldwide current events in daily life, and choose the proper translation strategies according to specific situations to make the translation be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or the writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of "political equivalence".(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Secondly, translators should treat both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaking country and the receiving country. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's political thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country, which requires the proper selection and use of the target language. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve "political equivalence" and even cause political events.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Thirdly, translators should know well about the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies.As we all know, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, the corresponding words in English and Chinese may have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Fourthly, translators should also know well about the differences between the two languages.In English, there are many grammatical rules different from from those of Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. If translators deal with these special expressions improperly, these expressions will hinder the realization of the "political equivalence" in translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

Fifthly, to achieve "political equivalence" in translating political discourse, translation strategies should not be single, rigid but flexible and diversified. In addition, the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text and the original or even several extended connotations of the words in it,instead,translators should recognize the real connotations of the political terms according to the context and different occasions. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or the writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

lastly, translators should ensure the political correctness in the translation of political discourse using their knowledge reserves. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the "minefields" of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to "translation storm" and affect the "political equivalence" of translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)

===6. Translation Strategies under The Standard of Political Equivalence===

Under the guidance of the standard of "political equivalence", the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.

(1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse

Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in "现代化" and "城镇化", so are abbreviations like "‘十四五’规划", "四个自信", etc., and four-character phrases such as "和平共处", "和而不同", etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as "‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打", among which "老虎(tiger)" and "苍蝇(flies)" refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. Therefore, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the "political equivalence"standard.

(2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)

① supplement

The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. When Chinese political terms are translated for foreigners, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.

The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplementing relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-2025) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplementing detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”

②Omission

English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are quite few equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being faithful to the original text.

The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasis, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available without changing the meaning. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.

(3) Translation strategies for metaphor

Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).

Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):

① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities

Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.

For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as "Long March of the new era". The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and its people. On the one hand, the literal translation of "The Long March" retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.

② Substitution of the metaphorical entities

After all, the differences between languages far outweigh the similarities, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text by using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead the reader. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.

For example, Foreign Ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And the word“scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers will not understand it.

③literal translation+explanation

In some other cases, where either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation + explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only maintains the cultural characteristics of the source language while enabling English readers to be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.

For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by the Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.

④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly

Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may encounter the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first ipriority to convey the correct political implication.

For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Since rice is the staple food in most parts of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down-to-earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of "rice bag" or "vegetable basket" without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.

===7. Conclusion===

From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, it can be seen that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of "political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic.

The translation of political discourse has its unique characteristics and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful in choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.

===8. References===

楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.

吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of "political equivalence"][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.

龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究["Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence" : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.

杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of "Political Equivalence" in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea "韬光养晦" as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.

杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of "Political Equivalence"-- Taking the translation of "韬光养晦" as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.

杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: "Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction" -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.

杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of "Political Equivalence plus"][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.

杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between "political equivalence" and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to "One Belt And One Road" period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.

==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666 俄语语言文学==

<center>张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666</center>

===Abstract===

Russian proverbs are produced under the specific cultural background and have rich cultural connotations. They are an important part of Russian language and culture. However, there are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, and the language forms of Russian and Chinese proverbs have their own characteristics. This chapter attempts to classify Russian proverbs and explore the translation methods and Strategies of Russian proverbs.(This chapter only discusses the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs and the English translation of proverbs is for reference only.)

===Key words===
Russian proverb，classification，Chinese translation methods，translation strategies

===题目===
俄语谚语的分类、汉译方法及策略

===摘要===
俄语谚语于特定的文化背景下产生，具有丰富的文化内涵，是俄语语言文化的重要组成部分。而俄汉两族文化差异较大，俄汉谚语语言形式各具特色，俄语谚语的翻译问题成为一个难题。本文试对俄语谚语进行分类，探究俄语谚语的翻译方法及翻译策略。

===关键词===
俄语谚语；分类；汉译方法；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===
Proverbs are a genre of folk literature（Wang Yanrong 2013,114) , and they are simple, popular and meaningful fixed sentences commonly used by the people. Generally speaking, proverbs are rhythmic in form, including various life phenomena in content, rich in educational significance, vividly reflecting the cultural connotations and characteristics of a nation, and are the result of wisdom of the broad masses of people and the essence of a national language（Zhou Changyu 2006,5). Therefore, understanding proverbs is an effective way to understand a nation. Proverbs of different nationalities have their own characteristics. The translation of proverbs among different nationalities has become an important issue in translation studies. This chapter attempts to explore the translation methods and principles of Russian proverbs.

===2.Classification of Russian proverbs===
The formation of Russian proverbs is inseparable from the production, life, customs, religion, culture and history of the nation, and has a distinctive national style. The Russian and Chinese languages belong to different language systems, and there is a big difference in the way of expression. In order to fully understand Russian proverbs and grasp the translation methods of Russian proverbs, this chapter first compares Russian and Chinese proverbs, and divides Russian proverbs into three categories based on the degree of consistency between Russian and Chinese proverbs, namely “complete consistency” and “partial consistency” and “complete inconsistency”（Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

====2.1 Complete consistency====

"Complete consistency" means that Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs are completely consistent in terms of thinking and figurative meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese that fully correspond to them. The number of such proverbs is relatively small, but they reflect the cultural commonality between the Russian and Chinese languages, indicating that the two peoples are similar in cognitive mode, thinking mode and personality characteristics between the two countries(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

For example, there is an ancient Chinese proverb in the Biography of Zhao Chongguo, The History of the Former Han Dynasty in ancient my country “百闻不如一见.” The meaning of this sentence is “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times,” which expresses that hearing more is not as reliable as seeing it. And there is a widely used proverb in Russian “Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать.(Jia Shufen 1996,146)” They are completely consistent and show that the people of the Russian and Han ethnic groups have the same understanding of the importance of “seeing with their own eyes.”

Another example is “Из искры возгорится пламя” in Russian. It was first written by Decembrists, famous Russian poet, A. I. Odoevsky(А. И. Одоевский) in reply to Pushkin’s support of Decembrists’ revolution, and was later written by Lenin. The application in Iskra is well known and circulated. The Chinese counterpart “星星之火, 可以燎原(A single spark can start a prairie fire)” is widely known and become a proverb because of Mao Zedong's articles(Chen Ying 2000,89).

Similarly, "Беда не приходит одна." and "祸不单行(Misfortune never come alone)(Jia Shufen 1996,6)", "Сытый голотного не разумеет." and "饱汉不知饿汉饥(Fatty people do not know hungry people are hungry)(Jia Shufen 1996,378)", "Близкий сосед лучше дальней родни." and "distant relatives are not as good as neighbors", “Одно дерево - не роща, одна птица - нестая” and "孤树不成林，孤鸟不成群(A single tree does not form forests, a lone bird does not form flocks)(Wang Jinhua,Zhang Li 2006,76)", etc., are completely consistent in image and meaning.

====2.2 Partial consistency====
"Partial consistency" means that Russian proverbs are the same or similar in thinking, cultural image or meaning to Chinese proverbs. Such Russian proverbs can find corresponding or related proverbs in Chinese to a certain extent. The large number of such proverbs reflects the differences in the understanding of different things and phenomena between nations(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).

For example, the Russian proverb "Расти как грибы после дождя" means "grow like mushrooms after rain", which means that things develop rapidly. Due to factors such as geographical location and natural environment, Russia is rich in mushrooms, and mushrooms grow rapidly after rain in Russia. In the same way, our country's "雨后春笋(bamboo shoots in spring)" have also grown rapidly, becoming a proverb that expresses the rapid development and emergence of things(Chen Ying 2000,90). This pair of Russian and Chinese proverbs uses the same thinking mode and different cultural images to express the same meaning.

Another example is the Russian proverb "Первый блин комом." It means that the first time you make a cake, you will always make a dough, which means that the first attempt is always easy to fail. The "блин" in the proverb is the unique Russian food "Russian pancake", which reflects the distinctive national characteristics. In Chinese, the proverb "三脚难踢，开锣的戏难唱(It's hard to kick the first three feet, and it's hard to sing the gongs)" uses images such as "三脚(three feet)" and "开锣的戏(plays with gongs)" to express that things are difficult at the beginning of attempts, and that "万事开头难(everything is difficult at first)" meaning. The two are very similar in their embodied meanings.
Some other examples included in this category are:

(1)Два медведя в одной берлоте неуживутся. 一个洞穴中不会住两只熊(Two bears in one berlot won't get along)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).

(2)И Москва несразу строилась. 莫斯科不是一下就建成的(And Moscow was not built immediately)(Chen Ying 2000,89).

(3)Гром не грянет, мужик не перекрестится. 不打雷，农夫不祷告(Thunder won't strike, the man won't cross)(Yang Min 2017, 202).

(4)Скарть со стола, и дружба сплыла.桌布一撤，友谊全无 (Scrap off the table and friendship floated away)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).

These Russian proverbs correspond to the Chinese "一山不容二虎(The mountain cannot accommodate two tigers)", "一口吃不成个胖子(You can't make a fat man with one bite)(Chen Ying 2000,90)", "临时抱佛脚(Temporary holding a Buddha's feet)", and "人走茶凉(No sooner has the person gone away than the tea cools down)(Lei Yumei 2014,114)". These sets of corresponding Russian and Chinese proverbs have different cultural images, but the meaning is the same.

====2.3 Complete inconsistency====
There are some Russian proverbs that have nothing to do with Chinese proverbs either in image or meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be classified as "completely inconsistent"(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114). The Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have their own unique national cultures. The differences in political economy, geographical environment, climate characteristics, vegetation, animals, historical allusions, living customs, religious beliefs, etc. have given birth to a series of ethnic proverbs(Yang Min 2017, 200).

For example, the literal translation of the Russian proverb "Дело-табак" is "事关烟草（it's about tobacco.）" What does it mean? It turned out that the boatmen on the Volga River used to hang tobacco bags around their necks to prevent the tobacco from getting wet. This sentence was used to remind people that the water depth is close to the neck. It has now been used to express "things are bad, the situation is not good". (Chen Ying 2000,90)

Another example is the Russian proverb "Хвалилась синица, что море зажжет." literally translated as "山雀吹嘘要把大海点燃(The tit boasted to light the sea)". This proverb comes from an allusion in Krylov’s fable: "The tit yelled everywhere that it was going to burn the sea. The news reached the animals' ears. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. "This proverb satirizes those who like to brag, but can't get things done. Such ethnic-specific proverbs are sometimes difficult to understand, and it is necessary to trace their roots to understand their meaning(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

These three types of Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs have different levels of consistency in content, and the degree of difficulty of understanding also varies. Therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to select one or a combination of multiple translation methods for translation according to different proverb classifications to achieve the purpose of "prescribe the right medicine".

===3. Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs===
Chinese and foreign translation theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" to Qian Zhongshu's "Concept of Transcendence"; from Qu Qiubai's "Concept of Equivalence" to "Functional Equivalence" by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A•Nidar Or "dynamic equivalence". We can see that the central point in their proposition is that the translation should faithfully express the meaning of the original text and reflect the appearance of the original text(Sheng Yichao 2009,110).

On the basis of this important point of view, we analyze the classification of Russian proverbs and apply various methods comprehensively in order to obtain a more perfect translation. Specifically, there are the following methods: translation method, set translation method, literal translation method, free translation method, borrowed translation method, and added word and annotation method(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

====3.1 Equivalent translation(对译法)====
"Equivalent translation" is directly using Chinese proverbs corresponding to Russian proverbs for translation. When using this translation method, the information conveyed by the literal and image meanings of Russian and Chinese proverbs should be the same. This translation method can correctly convey the pragmatic information contained in the image of the original language, enhance the readability of the translation, while completely retaining the rhetorical color of the original language, so that readers can understand the original text most accurately(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

This translation method is applicable to the "completely consistent" Russian proverbs mentioned above. For the Russian proverbs listed in 1.1, the existing proverbs in Chinese proverbs can be directly used as translations, and for example:

(1)Век живи, век учись. 活到老,学到老。(Live and learn.)

(2)Капля камень точит. 滴水穿石。(Constant dripping wears away a stone.)

(3)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。(Strike while the iron is hot.) (Jia Shufen 1996,135)

====3.2 Corresponding and literal translation====

In the Translatology Dictionary , the translation method “corresponding” is interpreted as the mutual translation of synonymous idioms. If the content, form, and rhetoric color of the target language roughly match the target language, then it is possible to adopt this method(Fang Mengzhi 2003,111). If the images and metaphors are the same or similar, this translation method is more appropriate; while the literal translation method is based on the form of the original text, which retains the metaphor, image and national characteristics of Russian proverbs. These two methods can be used simultaneously in translation practice.

“Corresponding” is suitable for the translation of "partially consistent" Russian proverbs introduced in 1.2 of this chapter. "Partially consistent" Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese with corresponding proverbs with different images but the same or similar meaning. At this time, if the “equivalent translation” is adopted, readers will be misunderstood and the translated language will lose the national characteristics of Russian proverbs. Therefore, when translating such proverbs, the original image should be kept as much as possible and the expression form of Chinese proverbs should be used. In addition to the examples already mentioned above, there are similar ones:

(1)Ложка дёгтю в бочку мёду. 一勺焦油坏了一桶蜜(A spoonful of tar breaks a bucket of honey), referring to the Chinese proverb "一粒老鼠屎坏了一锅汤(A mouse poop breaks a pot of soup)"(Jia Shufen 1996,145)

(2) Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟(No fire, no smoke)， refers to the Chinese proverb "无风不起浪(No wind, no waves)"(Jia Shufen 1996,240).

(3) Шила в мешке не устаишь. 口袋藏不住坠子(Pendant cannot be hidden in the pocket）, refers to the Chinese proverb "纸包不住火(Paper cannot keep fire)"(Jia Shufen 1996,303).

Such Russian proverbs refer to the expression form of Chinese proverbs. On the basis of retaining the language structure characteristics of Russian proverbs, they do not lose the national cultural characteristics of Russian proverbs. They are successful translations. “Corresponding” uses the expression form of Chinese proverbs to make the translation easier to be accepted by readers. While using the translation method “corresponding”, in fact, the literal translation method is also used. The two are closely combined to maximize the original image and style(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

====3.3 Free translation and loan translation====
The national cultures of China and Russia are quite different. When Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs use completely different figurative images, the figurative images in the literal original text will make the translation difficult to understand and accept, or cause misunderstandings. Using “corresponding” to translate Russian proverbs may cause deviation in understanding. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, free translation can be used for translation at this time. Free translation refers to a translation method that readjusts the structure of the original text on the basis of the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the original text clearly in a new way of expression.

For example, the Russian proverb "Язык до Киева довезёт. 舌头（语言）把你带到基辅。(The tongue (language) brings you to Kiev)" Kiev is an ancient city in the former Soviet Union. In ancient times, Kiev was called the mother city of the Russians and one of the most famous cities (Chen Ying 2000,90). Therefore, as long as you ask for directions, you will find Kiev. Therefore, this Russian proverb actually emphasizes the importance of "язык". The literal translation will obviously make readers puzzled. However, it can be translated as "有嘴走遍天下（With a mouth to travel all over the world）" through free translation, which is more appropriate and easy to understand(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

"На воре шапка горит(Jia Shufen 1996,176)." is literally translated as "小偷的帽子着火(The thief's hat is on fire)". If you don’t understand the source of the proverb, you cannot understand its meaning. This proverb originated from a story: Someone found a thief stealing, so he shouted in the crowd, "The thief's hat is on fire." When the thief heard it, he involuntarily looked at his head and exposed himself and was arrested. . Through free translation, this proverb can be translated as "the thief has a guilty conscience", so that the meaning of the original text can be more accurately conveyed to the reader(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

There are always commonalities and individualities in Russian and Chinese national cultures. Therefore, as mentioned in 1.2, there are cases where Russian and Chinese proverbs express the same or similar meanings in different cultural images. In this case, when the differences between Russian and Chinese proverbs are too prominent, you can also consider loan translation to translate, that is, by analyzing the internal meaning of Russian proverbs, borrowing Chinese proverbs with different images but expressing the same meaning for translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). E.g:

(1) Семь раз примерь, один раз отрежь.三思而后行(Jia Shufen 1996,345)。(Look before you leap.)

(2) Всякая лисица свой хвост хвалит. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸(Jiang Xiuhua 1999,166)。(Every cook praises his own broth.)

(3) Горбатого могила исправит. 禀性难移。(Human nature is hardly changed.)(Ye Fanglai 1987,102)

Using this translation method, the translation is not exactly the same as the original, and the content and form of the two are also very different. This distinguishes the loan translation method from the equivalent translation counterpart translation method and the “corresponding”. In fact, the loan translation method can be regarded as a variant of the free translation method, because the loan translation is actually an expression made by re-adjusting the structure of the original text on the basis of understanding the meaning of the original text. But it should also be distinguished from free translation, because the loan translation method borrows the proverbs already in Chinese. This method has lost the image in the original proverb and cannot be called a perfect translation method. It should be avoided as much as possible(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

====3.4 Addition and annotation====

Addition and annotation are compensatory translation methods, which supplement and reveal the cultural information in the original text.(Wang Yanrong 2013,114), the two explanations in the translatology dictionary are "to add some words according to the needs of semantics, rhetoric or syntax in translation, so as to faithfully and smoothly express the ideological content of the original text." And a translator's compensation method in order to fully express the original semantics and style in the process of translation is to help achieve the equivalence of translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2003,111)

Many Russian proverbs may produce pragmatic failure after literal translation. In order to avoid this failure, we can use the method of adding words or adding notes to introduce the image and cultural background of the original text in the form of annotation. This method makes the translation more vivid and intuitive, while retaining the image of the original text, showing the national characteristics of Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).

For example, the Russian proverb "И на солнце есть пятна." is literally translated as "太阳上也有黑点。(There are black spots on the sun.)" This translation is obviously difficult for readers to accept and understand, but if the Chinese proverb "金无足赤，人无完人(Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)" with the same meaning is added after it to reveal its connotation, “太阳上也有黑点—金无足赤，人无完人。(There are also black spots on the sun—Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)” This form of translation can allow readers to understand the meaning of the proverb clearly and keep the original image in Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).

Another example is "В Тулу со своим самоваром не ездят." literally translated as "不要带着茶炊去图拉。(Don't take a samovar to Tula.)" This Russian proverb has a strong Russian national color. Tula was once famous throughout the country for the production of samovars, and was the center of Russia's metallurgical industry and metal manufacturing. Taking the samovar to Tula, which is rich in samovars, actually means "make an unnecessary move". This proverb is very vivid. Russians can naturally understand and understand its meaning, but as Chinese readers who do not understand Russian culture, it may be difficult to understand the literal translation of this proverb.

Therefore, this proverb can be translated as "带着茶炊去图拉—多此一举(Bring a samovar to Tula--make an unnecessary move)", or add a note in brackets: "Tula is famous for making samovars." In this way, readers can not only understand the meaning of proverbs, but also intuitively feel the cultural elements of Russia. It can said as killing two birds with one stone(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). This translation method is often used in the situations described in 1.3. Examples also include:

（1）За двумя зайцами погонишься ни одного не поймаешь. 一人追双兔，到头两手空—一心不可二用。(One man chases two rabbits, and in the end two hands are empty--no man can do two things at once.)

（2）На языке мёд а в сердце лёд. 嘴上甜似蜜,心里冷若冰—笑里藏刀。(Sweet as honey on the mouth, cold as ice in the heart--hide a dagger in a smile.)

The above-mentioned several Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should not be limited to one of them. We should make a specific analysis according to the specific situation, flexibly use different translation methods, and learn from others' strong points, so as to achieve a harmonious translation.

===4. Translation strategies of Russian proverbs===

Russian proverbs are concise in language, rich in meaning, vivid in image, beautiful in rhythm and strong in national color. It is not easy to translate them into Chinese accurately and vividly. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should pay attention to the translation strategies in addition to the flexible application of various translation methods.

====4.1 Trace the origin and accurately interpret====
There are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese. When interpreting Russian proverbs, translators are likely to stay on the surface of the text and interpret the meaning from the text, resulting in misunderstanding and translation errors. Therefore, when translating Russian proverbs, especially those with historical or national background, we should carefully examine their allusions, trace back to the source, and accurately interpret the hidden meanings of proverbs.

For example, the Russian proverb "Недосол на столе, а пересол на спине." is literally translated as "菜淡了在桌上，菜咸了在背上。(The dish is light on the table, and the dish is salty on the back.)" This proverb can be traced back to the time of serfdom. Salt was a very valuable thing at that time, and those who wasted salt will be punished. Russians usually have salt shakers on their tables. If the dishes are weak, you can add salt at will, but if they are salty, the cook will be punished by whipping his back. Therefore, the basic meaning of the proverb is that if the dish is cooked, salt can be added, and if the dish is salted, the cook will be beaten. (Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun 2008,149)
However, this proverb was once translated as "多一事不如少一事(One thing more is worse than one thing less)" or "宁缺毋滥(It is better to leave a deficiency uncovered than to have it covered without discretion)". This kind of translation is obviously not appropriate. It is "taking the words too literally" without understanding the historical background(Ye Fanglai 1987,101).

Similar proverbs include "Была бы спина, а то будет вина." literally translated as "只要有脊背，就会有过错(As long as there is a back, there will be fault)" , this Russian proverb also contains the cultural image of "back". As mentioned above, whipping the back was a common punishment method at that time. At the same time, since the whipped person violated the discipline, not the law, there was a certain degree of randomness in determining the punishment object and the degree of punishment. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

Therefore, this proverb actually expresses the meaning of "欲加之罪，何患无辞(Give a dog a bad name and hang him)". If you don't know Russian history, you can't understand the meaning of this proverb. Therefore, it is very important to study the allusions of proverbs and understand their deep cultural meanings.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

====4.2 Retain characteristics and respect national culture====
Proverbs are the cultural crystallization of a nation and have distinctive national characteristics. When translating Russian proverbs, attention should be paid to the comprehensive use of multiple translation methods, to maximize the retention of national characteristics, not only to restore the original image and style, but also to reflect the national cultural connotation, while taking into account the reader's understanding and acceptance. At this time, we may use the methods of addition and annotation mentioned above, and try to avoid over-domestication of Russian proverbs, and respect the national culture. We should analyze it in the specific original text and translate it flexibly(Zhou Changyu 2006,42).

For example, the Russian proverb "Не всё коту масленица, бывает и великий пост." is literally translated as "a cat does not celebrate the festival of Marriage every day, and it always has a Lent." Readers who do not understand the Russian national culture may not understand the meaning of this proverb, if you add a comment at this time, “In Russian festivals, the 7-day Maslenitsa can best reflect the traditions of the Russian nation. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

The “Ross-Robs Festival” originated from the Orthodox Church. The 40-day fast in the Orthodox During the period, people are forbidden to eat meat and entertainment. Therefore, in the week before the start of Lent, people indulge in joy and every family pay close attention to eating meat to make up for the ascetic life during the fast period."If the background cultural knowledge contained in the proverb is revealed, readers will be able to more clearly understand the meaning of the proverb "good times will not last long, and a feast is hard to come by".(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)

Another example is the proverb "Не учи рыбу плавать. 不要教鱼儿游泳(Don't teach fish to swim)". Some people have translated the proverb as "不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)". This translation borrowed and translated the image in the original text into a well-known allusion(“班门弄斧”) image in Chinese people. The distortion of the cultural connotation in proverbs is excessive domestication, so it is not appropriate.(Zhou Changyu 2006,42)

====4.3 Pay attention to expression and focus on language use====

On the one hand, as a unique language form, proverbs are popular among the people, and they are a kind of spoken language style with the characteristics of spoken language style. Therefore, in the translation of Russian proverbs, the characteristics of easy to understand and easy to speak should also be reflected in the translation; On the other hand, as the famous Russian linguist A. A. Potebnya（А. А. Потебня） said, proverb “is a short literary work”. Proverbs are also a kind of folk literature, which is actually a literary form. We should pay attention to the aesthetic characteristics of proverbs in translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).

For example, if the proverb “Не учи рыбу плавать.” mentioned above is translated as “不要教鱼儿游泳(Don’t teach fish to swim)”, obviously the literal translation method will accurately retain the original metaphorical image while retaining the colloquial nature of the proverb. It is easy to understand and the translation of "不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)(“班门弄斧”is an Chinese allusion)" is blunt and overly written(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).

Another example is "Слово серебро, молчание золото" literally translated as "雄辩是银，沉默是金(eloquence is silver, silence is gold)" to express the phonology in the original text very well and make people read it catchy. If the Chinese proverb "是非只为多开口，烦恼皆因强出头(Right and wrong just for more mouth, worry all because of strong)", although the meaning is the same, it loses the metaphorical image and popularity of the original text; as for the aesthetic characteristics, the translation of the Russian proverb "Красна птица пером, а человек умом." "鸟美在羽毛，人美在头脑(The beauty of birds is in the feathers, and the beauty of people is in the mind.)" This translation adopts the method of literal translation, while preserving the original image, it also restores the structure of the original text and the rhetorical symmetry, which conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original text(Zhou Changyu 2006,44).

===5. Conclusion===
In short, Russian and Chinese are two very different languages, and the proverbs of the two ethnic groups also have their own characteristics in language form. The translation must take into account the unique style, connotation and meaning of the original text at the same time, while maintaining the fluency of sentences, perfect expression, and achieving the harmony and unity of sound, rhyme and meaning. It is by no means easy, and it is a major test for translators. Translators should not only have a thorough understanding of the original text and the cultural background of the original text, and be proficient in tempering words, but also should flexibly use various translation methods, master translation strategies, and strive to accurately express the profound meaning of Russian proverbs.

===6. References===
[1]Jia Shufen.贾淑芬.(1996). 简明俄汉语谚语词典[A Concise Dictionary of Russian and Chinese Proverbs]. 辽宁大学出版社[Liaoning University Press].

[2] Ye Fanglai.叶芳来.(2005) 俄汉谚语俗语词典[A Dictionary of Russian and Chinese Proverbs].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

[3] Yang Min.杨敏.俄汉谚语翻译中的形象处理.(2017).[Image processing in the translation of Russian-Chinese proverbs]. 文化学刊[Journal of Cultural Studies]200-203.

[4]Wang Xingsong王兴松. (2016). 浅谈俄语谚语的翻译.[On the translation of Russian proverbs].读书文摘[Reading Abstract]78.

[5]Lei Yumei.雷玉梅.(2014).文化视角下的俄语谚语翻译.[Translation of Russian proverbs from a cultural perspective]. 边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]113-114.

[6] Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun. (2008). 马为群，张晓云．谚语版俄语语法教程.[Proverbs Edition Russian Grammar Course]. 哈尔滨工业大学出版社.[Harbin Institute of Technology Press].

[7] Wang Yanrong.王艳荣.(2013).俄语谚语的翻译方法. [The translation method of Russian proverbs]. 安徽文学[Anhui Literature (second half of the month)]114.

[8] Zhou Changyu.周长雨. (2006).俄语谚语的汉译问题. [Chinese translation of Russian proverbs]. 哈尔滨工业大学.[Harbin Institute of Technology].

[9] Sheng Yichao.盛义朝.(2009).俄语谚语翻译初探. [A Probe into the Translation of Russian Proverbs]. 吉林省教育学院学报.[Journal of Jilin Province Education College] 110-111.

[10]Chen Ying.陈颖.(2000).从俄汉谚俗语的对译看民族个性. [Looking at the national personality from the translation of Russian and Chinese proverbs].黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]89-90.

[11]Wang Jinhua, Zhang Li.王金花,张丽.(2006).俄语谚语翻译中有关问题的探讨 [Discussion on Related Issues in Russian Proverb Translation]. 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版)[Journal of Inner Mongolia University of Finance and Economics (Comprehensive Edition)]76-78.

[12]Yu Jun.于军.(2008).浅析俄语谚语及其汉译问题.[Analysis of Russian proverbs and their Chinese translation]. 考试周刊.[Examination Weekly]226-227.

[13] Ye Fanglai. 叶芳来. (1987).浅谈俄语谚语的翻译.[On the translation of Russian proverbs]. 郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版).[Journal of Zhengzhou University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)] 99-103.

[14] Jiang Xiuhua. 姜秀华.(2000). 俄汉语谚语在民族文化方面及修辞特点的对比.[Comparison of Russian and Chinese proverbs in terms of national culture and rhetoric characteristics]. 呼伦贝尔学院学报.[Journal of Hulunbuir University] 66-68.

[15] Hu Aimin.胡爱民.(1986).也谈俄语谚语和俗语的民族色彩.[Also on the national colors of Russian proverbs and sayings]. 外语与外语教学.[Foreign Languages Teaching]52-54.

==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory 李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学==
<center>李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学 </center>

===Abstract===

In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.

===Keywords===
Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered Theory

===摘要===
在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。

===关键词===
联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论

===1.Introduction===
====1.1.Research Background and Significance====

In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, intercultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures.

This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture''“Translators are allowed more liberties on what one might be tempted to call‘the purely linguistic level,’ certainly if the translation is not meant to‘represent’ the original in the translators' culture, but simply to help translators refine their knowledge of their own language.”(Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4).

As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpreting is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpreting strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.

Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that "in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpreting research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpreting by interpreters" (Liu Yingjun 2014,141- 143).

We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpreting. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpreting studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting setting. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao Xiaomei 2020, 105- 108). However, different interpreting settings have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple settings to interpret.

In addition, many Chinese liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpreting from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and "translator-centered theory". The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.（Wang Shaolong 2020,39-40/Mao Zhen 2020,33-34）

====1.2.Definition of Liaison Interpreting====

Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpreting and one-way interpreting according to the direction of interpreting. The liaison interpreting we discuss here is a typical two-way interpreting. We generally believe that liaison interpreting is a kind of interpreting which is different from conference interpreting and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpreting. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpreting earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,12).

This is the early propositions which business interpreting is equivalent to liaison interpreting, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpreting settings, the connotation of liaison interpreting has been expanded to include various forms of interpreting within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a "tripartite communication" model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14).

Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpreting, liaison interpreting is a "bilateral interpreting" within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpreting, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpreting.

====1.3.Research Method====

Based on the "reader-centered theory" of reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory" of "Eco-translatology", this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpreting.

===2.Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===

====2.1.Reception Aesthetics====
Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term "reception aesthetics" was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school.(Jin Huxiong 2002, 264-267)

Izer once said, "Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature"(Guo Hongan 1997，338-339).

There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the "the horizon of expectations"， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading.(Wang Tong 2020, 198-199)

The second concept is the "response-inviting structure", which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a "text blank" in the text that only the reader can fill.(Jin Huxiong 2002,274)

"Text blank" can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.

====2.2.Translator-Centered Theory====
The concept of "translator-centered theory" is closely related to "Eco-translatology" put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen. "Eco-translatology" is a new concept, and there are still many controversies and misunderstandings about it among Chinese scholars. In the opinion of Leng Yuhong, "If we want to construct a systematic and complete “Eco-translatology Theory”, the first thing to be overturned must be the 'translator-centered'!" (Leng Yuhong 2011, 72-73).

The main reason for his conclusion is that he has a misunderstanding of "translator-centered". Leng Yuhong believes that the "translator-centered" puts the "translator" above the "original text" and the "recipient", and takes the translator to an extreme like “translation-center theory”.

Some other scholars believe that, on the one hand, the "translator-centered theory" fails to break through the dichotomization of subject and object; on the other hand, it is interpreted from the perspective of concrete operation instead of philosophical reasoning. Therefore, it lacks an organic connection with the anti-centrism and equality core contained in the Oriental ecological wisdom.(Luo Dijiang 2017， 65)

Then professor Hu retorted, the "translator-centered" concept, in the process of translation is mainly reveals the "leading" role of the translator in the translation process, specifically refers to the translator in the translation process must first "adapt to" the ecological environment of translation, and then, the translator in according to the ecological environment of translation to decide on the "choice" of translation , which includes the translator "selective adaptation" and "adaptive selection" and so on, all the translation behaviors of translation activity is determined by translator, this is the core and intention of "translator-center theory . In other words, the translation system is pluralistic, and the translator should actively adapt to the environment in the process of translation, instead of destroying the relationship between each subject in the translation system to reach the dominant position. Professor Hu also emphasizes the distinction between "translator-centered theory" and "subjectivity" in order to emphasize the dynamic role that translators can play in translation.(Hu Gengshen 2013, 208, 218-219)

Yin suiqiong also believes that ecological paradigm is not a commonality between translation studies and natural ecosystems, but a feature shared by all social science research systems. Hu said that Yin's erroneous conclusion is based on a misunderstanding of the concept of "paradigm", and that “Eco-translatology” and its "translator-centered theory" are the common beliefs of recent translation scholars, rather than emphasizing that they are unique to translatology and natural ecosystems.(Yin Suiqiong 2017, 56-62/ Hu Gengshen 2017, 63-68)

In addition, there are many arguements about “Eco-translatology” and "translator-centered theory" in China, we think that the “translator-centered theory” under the perspective of “Eco-translatology” not mean that "translator" above the "source language" and "recipients", but hope from the perspective of "translator" thinking about the problems in the translation process and the solution to the problem, emphasizes the "translator" actively adapt to the social scene and positive response to this strategy.

Then, what is the relationship between the "reader-centered theory" of reception aesthetics and the "translator-centered theory" of Eco-translatology studies? We think that the two are dialectical unity, reception aesthetics require the translator to fully consider the recipient's cultural quality and cognitive levels, but completely according to the requirements of the recipient to make the choice of translation strategy and translation quality evaluation is too biased, because recipient's aesthetic of translation products too subjective and lack of professionalism, and "translator-centered theory" advocate that the difficulties encountered in the translation should be solved by translators according to their professional judgment and also encourages translators to seek more change through its own development strategy.

Of course, "reader-centered theory" and "translator-centered theory" are not diametrically opposed, and translator-centered theory also requires translators to consider the needs of recipients of translation products. It can be said that "reader-centered theory" is a reference item of "translator-centered theory", and "translator-centered theory" is a further development of "reader-centered theory".

===3.Positioning of liaison interpreter===
In the field of interpretation, there have always been different opinions on the principle of fidelity of interpretation products: some people believe that "sentence by sentence translation" should be carried out, and interpretation products should be faithful to the original text in form. That is, the interpreter should "be like a megaphone" ; Some people believe that interpreters should take into account the cultural context in which communication takes place, and that interpretation products should be faithful to the "meaning" of the original text, that is, the central meaning expressed by the speaker .(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,153)

However, there are significantly more supporters of the latter than the former. This is similar to the debate on the principle of translation in translation studies: literal translation v.s. free translation. The discussion of translation principles is generally focused on literature. At present, we generally believe that different translation strategies should be adopted according to different literary genres and themes. It is also similar in the study of interpretation. Liaison interpreters should adopt different interpreting strategies according to different interpretation scenes and themes. The difference between liaison interpretation and translation comes from R. Bruce W. Anderson's "tripartite communication" theory.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14）

Liaison interpreters are directly facing customers when interpreting, and their interpreting products will be delivered to customers in a timely manner, so the quality of their translation products depends entirely on customers' judgment at present. So when we think about the role of the liaison interpreters, one of the most important references is what the client expects of the interpreter. In addition, the interpreter acts as a bridge between the two sides in communication, and the role of the liaison interpreter is more prominent than that of other types of interpreters.

Therefore, the positioning of the interpreters on themselves is also very important. In addition, another characteristic that distinguishes liaison interpreters from other types of translators is that liaison interpretation is often in a dynamic and diversified scene, unlike other translators who are only in a single translation setting. Therefore, analysis of the interpreting setting is also a part that cannot be ignored when discussing the role positioning of the interpreter.

====3.1.Client's Expectation of the Interpreter's Role====
From the perspective of reception aesthetics, clients will estimate and expect interpretation products in advance according to their reading experience and aesthetic taste. Donova-Cagigos talked about the measurement and judgment of interpretation quality, and believed that if "faithfulness" could not be quantified, it could only be relevant to specific communicative occasions so the results of the clients expectation investigation, such as the user's preference for the delivery of the main idea over the full translation, can be used as an important criterion for rating accuracy and omission.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，169)

This requires the liaison interpreter to adjust his/her role to the client's expectations. Each user's knowledge base, education level and other aspects of the difference will lead to their expectations of liaison interpreters change. We divide clients' expectations on interpreters into two categories: one is that interpreters are expected to interpret faithfully, neutrally and impartially, without mixing their own interpretation with concise output of source language information; The other is to expect interpreters to add their own explanations through omission, addition and other interpreting techniques when interpreting source language information, so as to make interpreting products better understood.

The role expectations of the above two kinds of clients depend largely on the nature of the clients and the purpose for which the clients accept the interpretation. The first kind of clients who hope interpreter completely follow the principle of "faithfulness" , have a comprehensive understanding of the areas involved in interpretation, they receive interpretation mainly for the purpose of obtaining extended knowledge of known fields or general information, or because of the limitation of interpretation theme requires an interpreter to stay neutral, such as legal interpreting.

In this regard, Collados Aís studied the requirements on the interpretation quality standards of the interpreting clients who are experts and found that the subjects did not give low marks to the content errors in the "pleasant to hear" interpretation, but scored them according to other standards. The principle of "faithfulness", which the clients attach most importance to, did not play a corresponding role in the evaluation.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，171)

The second group of clients expect interpreters to go beyond "translation machines" and become helpers who can answer their own questions and facilitate communication. Such clients generally have little knowledge of the fields involved in the interpreting content, and the purpose of receiving interpreting of them is to understand a completely unfamiliar knowledge field and acquire as much new knowledge as possible.

In practice, most clients prefer the latter, which is also determined by the nature of liaison interpreting. One characteristic of liaison interpreters is that interpreters often act as "escorts" (Zhan Cheng 2010,3).

As an example, the author accompanied the "Confucius Institute" visiting group of South Korea's Wonkwang University during undergraduate years., for the purpose of cultural communication, the school asked the author with the delegation visit to cultural sites such as Hunan Provincial Museum, the author's main role in the trip is interpreter, but due to the particularity of interpreting theme, the author needs to explain the names of cultural relics and supplement relevant historical knowledge to the delegation members, so while interpreting, the author also plays the role of a tour guide.

====3.2.The Interpreter's Position on Themselves====
In the perspective of Foucault's power theory, the interpreter is no longer the traditional "transmitter", and the subject consciousness of the interpreter is highlighted. In the practice of interpreting, the interpreter's cognition of his/her status, ability and value is an important manifestation of the interpreter's subjectivity (Wang 2019,14). In liaison interpreting, as a person directly involved in communication and proficient in bilingualism, the liaison interpreter must have the advantage of adopting appropriate interpretation strategies according to power distribution in a communication. From the perspective of "translator-centered theory", liaison interpreters also have the obligation to adapt to different interpreting environments and coordinate the discourse of communication parties. Then the following situations usually occur:

In order to ensure the quality of their interpretation products and promote the progress of communication, liaison interpreters tend to go beyond the act of interpretation itself and make supplementary explanations of the content of interpretation that may cause communication barriers, either intentionally or unintentionally. Or when the interpretation content is of a strong national or national nature, liaison interpreters will inevitably have a tendency to protect the rights of their own country and nation and increase the discourse power of their own country and nation.

Of course, in general, interpreters will try their best to follow the principle of "faithfulness" in interpretation, and the ratio of "faithfulness" to "creativity" depends on the "choice" made by the liaison interpreter according to the translation environment.

====3.3.The Role of Interpreter under Different Liaison Interpreting Types====
"There is no absolute or unambiguous criterion for determining whether a method of interpreting is' good 'in all respects. Different types of interpreting activities have different target structures, different concerns, needs, expectations, and different levels of participation by all parties involved, which means that there are a variety of requirements for interpreters ".（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，172）

Therefore, the author believes that when discussing the role of the liaison interpreter, the role of the interpreter should be analyzed according to the different interpretation types. Next, the author intends to take business interpreting, guide-interpreting and legal interpreting as examples to analyze the roles of interpreters suitable for different interpreting type.

=====3.3.1.Business Interpreting=====
Business interpreting is different from other liaison interpreting. First, business interpreting usually takes place in the context of cooperative project negotiation. In communication, the monolingual speakers respectively represent the interests of their enterprises and, usually, the interests of the countries where the enterprises are located.Secondly, the communicative parties usually have the purpose of long-term cooperation. Third, the content of business interpreting usually contains a large number of professional terms and figures; Fourth, business interpreters are usually permanent employees of one side of the communication. Fifthly, advanced diction is usually used in business interpretation.

Due to the above characteristics of business interpreting, it is necessary for liaison interpreters to have the following accurate understanding of their role positioning.

First, business interpreters are channels to convey "meaning". This is the basic professionalism of an interpreter. Liaison interpreting is also known as bilateral interpretation. The existing bilateral interpretation model is based on the "tripartite communication" model. As one of the three parties, the liaison interpreter, like the Internet connecting two terminals, undertakes the task of processing the communication information between the two parties.

Second, business interpreters are debaters for the benefit of their clients. Because of the long-standing relationship between liaison interpreters and clients, clients tend to treat the interpreters they hire as their "inside" colleagues.In many business communication situations, clients represent the interests of their own enterprises and are in a fast-changing vanity fair, and the business interpreters employed by them, as bilingual and with certain knowledge of the business, are bound to be the target for clients to seek help.(Zhang Meng 2014，29)

Third, business interpreters are mediators of the negotiation atmosphere. In business negotiations, it is often the case that the two parties in communication fight for their own interests and the negotiation comes to a deadlock. Business interpreters have the obligation to use interpreting strategies and techniques to soften the atmosphere and act as a buffer when both sides are using increasingly extreme language and tone.

Fourth, a business interpreter is also a professional "business practitioner". Business interpreters are professional "business practitioners" who are the second most important role besides "interpreter". This is also based on the first point of the basic role of the interpreter positioning. Sometimes the two sides of communication have different professional terms for the same concept. In order to facilitate the smooth communication between the two sides, usually the interpreter needs to be familiar with the relevant terms and interpret them quickly and accurately. In other words, it requires not only a good command of a foreign language, but also a good knowledge of business.（Zhang Meng 2014，29）

=====3.3.2.Guide-interpreting=====
In addition to the business interpreting and legal interpreting mentioned by Pǎchhacker in the classification of interpreting, guide-interpreting is also distinguished from other liaison interpreting in that it has the most prominent intercultural characteristics and the emphasis of interpretation is on the inheritance of the culture reflected in the source language. In a sense, the role of a guide-interpreter is similar to that of a diplomat, who not only needs to make tourists understand the history and culture of China, but also needs to answer their questions accurately and timely. As a result, guide-interpreters should pay more attention when making role positioning.(Jia Zhiyong 2017，223/ Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,160-162)

First, guide-interpreters are facilitators of communication. In the tourism-themed interpreting work, the interpreter's duty is to help tourists and tour guides communicate, which is also the embodiment of the interpreter's "bridge" role in the field of tourism. So in some cases, it is necessary for an interpreter to supplement the source language, such as when a Chinese tour guide introduces a mountain to English-speaking tourists and says:

ex）“大家现在看到的山远看像一条卧龙，因此取名卧龙山。”
And then the interpreter can interpret this sentence as:

1）*"The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain."

2）"The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain. ‘Wolong’ means sleeping dragon."

Obviously, the first interpreting product does not convey the original intention of the tour guide to the tourists. The tour guide's original intention is to let the tourists know that the name of the mountain has something to do with its appearance. However, if the name of the mountain is transliterated directly without supplementary explanation, the tourists will still not understand the connection between the name of the mountain and its shape.

Second, tour interpreters are "cultural brokers". Besides interpreting the words of tour guides to tourists, interpreters should also properly explain some incomprehensible cultural phenomena to tourists. For example, a tour guide introduces the Palace Museum in Beijing to foreign tourists.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,161)

The Palace Museum in Beijing is a completely symmetrical building built along a central axis. The ancient Chinese, influenced by Confucianism, believed that a completely symmetrical building could foil the majesty of the emperor. If the interpreter only changes the language of the original when interpreting this sentence, it will not make the foreign tourists understand The Chinese Confucian culture correctly. Because the guide as well as Chinese tourists learn at an early age and contact with Confucianism, so the Chinese subconsciously has "symmetrical architecture", "Confucianism" and "Confucianism" link up without the need for further explanation, but as an interpreter should be aware that foreign tourists are likely to have no contact with Confucianism, also don't know "symmetrical architecture" and "Confucianism", so when the tour guide has no further explanation, the interpreter is necessary for additional instructions, play the role of a "cultural agent".

Third, guide-interpreters are the keepers of the atmosphere. The working scenes of guide-interpreters are informal, such as scenic spots and hotels, so the intonation and wording of interpreters should be in line with the current atmosphere. If the intonation is too plain and the wording is too serious, foreign tourists will find it difficult to adapt to it, and the interpreting products of interpreters will also "reject" the interpreting settings.

Fourth, guide-interpreters are "experts" in the tourism industry. Similar to a business interpreter, a guide-interpreter requires a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the relevant field, which is the basis for the interpreter to act as a "culture broker".

Fifthly, there is another special case in which a guide-interpreter may be both an interpreter and a tour guide. When the author was an undergraduate, the author acted as an interpreter for the "Confucius Institute" delegation of Wonkwang University in South Korea, mainly following them to various cultural tourist attractions. Since the author had been to relevant scenic spots for many times, the author acted as a dual role of "interpreter" and "tour guide" without employing professional guides.

=====3.3.3.Legal Interpreting=====
Legal interpreting refers to interpreting under legal settings, including judicial interpreting and quasi-judicial interpreting. Judicial interpreting refers to "interpreting under court settings", while quasi-judicial interpreting refers to interpreting taken place outside the court and closely related to court procedure (Zhao Junfeng，Dong Yan 2020,70).

In distinguishing between international and community settings, Pǎchhacker points out that court interpreting is "the most obvious binding setting for community interpreting". (Franz.Pǎchhacker, 2010,177) The author takes courtroom interpreting as an example for analysis. In court interpreting, the situation of interpretation is more serious than that of other types of interpreting, because of the rigor of the law, the interpreter should also be more precise in the wording and sentence construction. The roles of court interpreters are as follows:

First, an invisible interpreting machine. In most court interpreting, the restrictions imposed by the legal system on interpreters are often contrary to the standards advocated by the interpreting profession (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,178). In order to maintain the rigor of the law, court interpreters are required to be "invisible" and interpret word by word, so the nature of the law gives court interpreters a role positioning that distinguishes them from other types of interpreters -- "artificial intelligence interpreting machine" with high accuracy.

Second, conflict mediators. This role is due to the large power gap between legal practitioners such as judges and non-legal practitioners such as defendants and plaintiffs in the courtroom. In tense court debates, interpreters often act as conflict mediators in order to keep communication going.

Third, intercultural agents. In fact, it is not only guide-interpreting, there will be more or less cultural barriers in any intercultural communication, and court interpreting is no exception. There was a famous case in which a Chinese-grandmother who lived in the United States gave "刮痧" to her sick grandson. Her son-in-law mistakenly thought that she had abused the child, so she was brought to court. The grandmother argued in court that it was only "刮痧", and the interpreter made additional explanations and said："‘刮痧’is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy" in order to make the American judge understand "刮痧" , and the case was finally dismissed. This example well demonstrates the important role of interpreters as intercultural agents in court interpretation. (Du Mengmeng, Tan Jianying 2013,106-107)

Fourth, legal "experts". In order to ensure the accuracy of the interpreting and the accurate understanding of legal terms by the listener of the TL, interpreters usually need to master a large amount of legal knowledge and relevant vocabulary accurately, and be able to provide basic answers for the listener lacking legal knowledge when necessary.

To sum up, the role of an interpreter is generally related to the above three aspects. In other words, due to the limitations of client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge and setting, interpreters need to make "adaptive selection" and "selective adaptation" to different interpreting environments according to client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge. The role positioning of the interpreter affects the interpreting strategies that the interpreter chooses in the actual interpreting process, so the balance between "reception aesthetics" and "translator-centered theory" in different interpreting settings is of vital importance.

===4.Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Settings===
====4.1.The Influence and Application of Reception Aesthetics and "Translator-Centered Theory" on Interpreting Strategies====
As mentioned in the previous section, there are two main types of interpretation customers: those who expect faithful interpreting and those who expect supplementary interpreting. When interpreters fail to communicate with clients in advance and adjust their interpreting strategies according to clients' expectations, they will often produce interpreting products deviating from clients' needs, thus leading to errors in the transmission of interpreting information and resulting in interpreting barriers. The influence of such factors can be largely eliminated by preparation before interpreting.

In the pre-interpretation preparation stage, interpreters can understand the cultural background of clients in advance or directly communicate with clients to understand their needs. Only by integrating interpretation products with clients' expectations can they be regarded as successful interpreting products. However, in practical interpreting, interpreters also encounter another kind of difficulty, that is, clients have aesthetic expectations of interpreting products and expect interpreters to make detailed explanations of relevant information.

We know that the aesthetic value of an interpreting product derives from the "places of indeterminacy" of the product. Generally speaking, it is the space to appreciate an interpreting product, similar to the "blank space" in a Chinese painting. A balance should be struck between the degree of supplementary explanation and the degree of artistic "white space" in interpreting, which is difficult to grasp precisely because the clients who often make such requests do not have an accurate definition. In order to deal with this problem, interpreters have to make perceptual judgments based on their rich practical experience. Of course, it is not feasible to develop interpreting strategies based entirely on clients' expectations.

Lv Jun once put forward, "Every reader has different natural talent, endowment, experience and cultivation, so the works will present different meanings to each reader... If based on such a theory, how can we draw the conclusion of ‘principle of equivalence’?" This is also the paradox between reception aesthetics and Nida's ‘functional equivalence theory’" (Lv Jun 1997，51).

As interpreters are participants in intercultural communication, their own factors must have a great impact on the quality of interpreting. The author believes that the problem of interpreting obstacles caused by interpreters' own factors can be solved through the "translator-centered theory" in "Eco-translatology". The "translator-centered theory" requires interpreters to develop themselves, that is, interpreters should change their interpreting circumstances and improve their interpreting ability, so as to obtain freedom of choice to ensure their central position in interpreting activities.(Luo Dijiang 2019，219)

Interpreters can expand their power in interpreting activities by improving their interpreting ability and using interpreting techniques. According to Pǎchhacker, there are two ways to improve interpreting skills: personal qualities and professional skills. Personal quality includes biological individual function and psychological quality. Professional skills mainly refer to bilingual skills. First of all, how to improve personal quality and ability. Apart from the inherent intelligence factor, interpreters should actively improve their psychological quality, which is a necessary guarantee for the smooth progress of interpreting.（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,181）

In case of difficulties, interpreters should not be flustered, but should actively take various countermeasures to overcome or temporarily avoid the difficulties to ensure the quality of the overall interpreting products. Zhan Cheng suggested that interpreters could simplify this by seeking help from the speakers (Zhan Cheng 2010，153-154).

In addition, the author believes that the predicament of interpreting can also be solved by "imitation words"， which is a special kind of loanwords. Take Chinese-Korean interpreting for example. In the Hunan Provincial Museum, there is a collection called "纪念木牍", which is a piece of wood used for writing in ancient China to records the time of some events, a time when the interpreter didn't know its corresponding proper nouns, can according to its pronunciation rules imitate a word - "기년목독". Since both countries belong to the same cultural cycle of Chinese characters , Koreans learn basic Chinese characters from an early age, so they can understand the meaning and use of the imitated words even if they are not accurate.

There is also a case in French where the word science-fiction is directly interpreted into English. This is very useful for solving the sudden interpreting obstacles encountered in the process of interpreting.(Munday, J 2014, 80)

In terms of improving professional skills, before the beginning of interpreting, interpreters should have a systematic system of interpreting notes, which should be as concise as possible to improve the efficiency of interpreting symbols, and should be used to test the practicality of symbols in practice. Interpreters should also accumulate professional knowledge and vocabulary in various fields in daily life, and be familiar with the interpreting content and background knowledge before starting an interpreting.

At the end of the interpreting work, the interpreter should review the difficulties encountered in the interpreting activities and think positively about the solutions to avoid repeating the past mistakes. With the development and progress of science and technology, modern science and technology have been widely used in the field of interpreting. Using digital recording technology, the interpreters can replace the notes in the interpreting by simply using portable devices such as computers to attach the source words to the digital audio tape and then playing them through headphones (Franz. Pǎchhacker 2010, 186).

In addition, modern technology can also be used to build artificial intelligence corpus, which can be used to classify corpus according to different translation topics.

====4.2.Interpreting Strategies in Different Settings====
Whether it is business interpreting, guide-interpreting or legal interpreting, interpreters are faced with the choice of "faithfulness" and "creativity". However, different types of liaison interpreting have different "interpreting ecological environments". The author analyzed the interpreting strategies applicable to these three types of liaison interpreting respectively.

The clients of business interpreting have unclear requirements on interpreting products, which require interpreters not only to profit for the company but also to regulate the atmosphere, while the ecological environment of business interpreting requires interpreters to be both "faithful" and "creative". Therefore, the interpreter has to adjust the strategy according to the specific interpreting content at any time. When both sides of the communication are negotiating for benefits, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “faithfulness” rather than “creativity”; when the two sides are chatting, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “creativity” rather than “faithfulness”; and when the two sides enter into a deadlock, the interpreter should use the "creative" interpreting to ease the atmosphere.

In guide-interpreting, the interpreter's role as "cultural broker" and "atmosphere maker", clients are usually expect interpreters interpret products for their own pleasure, so in the interpreting process of the guide-interpreting, interpreters should be as creative as possible through omission or addition, lively tone and appropriate word choice to achieve clients' expectations. At the same time, interpreters should not completely rebel against the principle of "faithfulness" without regard to the content of the SL.

Although interpreters also play the role of intercultural agents in legal interpreting, their more important role is interpretation machine for legal provisions. The ecological environment of legal interpreting is in a highly tense and rigorous atmosphere, which requires interpreters to adapt to the rigorous atmosphere and try their best to interpret sentence by sentence.

===5.Conclusion===
In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory".

The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and "translator-centered theory". The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between "faithfulness" and "creativity".

We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of "faithfulness" and "creativity" according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the "creativity" of interpretation products on the basis of "faithfulness", so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret "word by word". Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content.

This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.In a word, interpreters should strike a balance between "faithfulness" and "creativity" by relying on their professional quality and customers' expectations, which is the only way to improve the quality of interpretation products.

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[15] Wang Tong 汪童.（2020）.从接受美学视域探究《虞美人》英译[The English Translation of ''To the Tune of Yumeiren'' from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics][J].''海外英语'' [Overseas English]. 198-199.

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--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=Translation Appreciation=

==Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664 英语语言文学==

<center>袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi no.202020080664</center>

===Abstract===

''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in American literature. Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into Chinese, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times in China. The version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and the most influential one in China, and it is regarded as a classic translation. There have been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are relatively few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi's translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to translation studies of ''Walden'' and literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.

===Key words===

''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics

===题目===
从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本

===摘要===

《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。

===关键词===

《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学

===Introduction===

====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====
=====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====
''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise, powerful, simple and natural which represent a unique style among American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord, at there he cultivated his own land, ate food grown in his land and experienced a life that is simple and close to nature. Thoreau loved and appreciated nature and he immersed himself in nature. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment.

=====Introduction to ''Walden''=====
''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which records Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two years from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau's view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.
''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, this book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages.
Thoreau's own practices in reality and his works both reflected his ideal, that is returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by their families, works and various material needs, thus they lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.

====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====
=====Introduction to Xu Chi=====
Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription "Poetry expresses ambition", and he was known as "Contemporary Chinese Goethe" and "Father of Reportage". Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).

=====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====
In 1949, Xu translated ''Walden'' into Chinese called "华尔腾". However, his translation failed to elicit widespread attention. Because at that time, people all over China were immersed in the joy of gaining liberation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'' which promotes tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.

In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it "瓦尔登湖", which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu Chi's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu Chi's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden'' (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).
Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, could he have more resonance with the writers and their works and thus he could reproduce the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent.(Yao Junwei 2005, 146).

Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's work, did Xu Chi love this book so much and he decided to translate this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes did not have time to read it. Because this book was too difficult to understand, Xu Chi found that it seemed that this book was not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, later he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he felt it quite interesting. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the night became quiet, the book became not so obscure and he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).

''Walden'' is Xu Chi's most successful translation. He translated it first in 1949, then again in 1982 and finally in 1996. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'' in recent years, but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translation of ''Walden''. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference , which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation (Wang Zhao 2009, 147).

====Style and Styllistics====
=====Style=====
Originated from Latin or Greek word "stile" or "stilus", "style" originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 374).
Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of "figures" that conform to his or her mode of discourse (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 375).

For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.

One of the most successful attempts to define "style" in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short's definition. They offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:
(a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language.
(b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text).
(c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function.
(d) Stylistic choices is limited to those aspects of linguistic choices which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter. (Leech and Short 1981)

Another example is Nida Eugene's definition. He pointed out that translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. So in translation of literary works, the author's style should be represented through the translator's style, and the translator's style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers'styles and yet has its own unique translation style (Nida Eugene 1982, 12).

The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of linguistic style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-linguistic style include the author's emotion, the author's imagination and the author's intelligence. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of linguistic style. (Lv Jun & Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).

In conclude, translation, especially literary translation as an cross-cultural process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.

=====Styllistics=====
Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms. It is an interdisciplinary subject, which is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines. Its object of study is the style of language.

It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 376).

=====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====
''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Thoreau'language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized as plain, natural, concise, powerful, and unique. ''Walden'' is also a book which aims directly at the reader. Anyone who reads this book will feel like they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. However, this book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Because ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: rich vocabulary, complex syntax and various rhetorical devices (Zhang Jianguo 2005, 107).

So it is helpful for translators to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand Thoreau' stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his language style in the target language.

===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===
====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====
=====Degree of Formality=====
In ''Walden'', Thoreau used concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, Thoreau's choice of words suggests that general style of ''Walden'' is not that formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation.

First, let us see a example of translation of nouns in Xu Chi's version.
Example 1：
…；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)
Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)

As can be seen from the above, "washing" in Xu Chi's translation is understood as "洗瀣物". "washing" is a common word English-speaking people use in their daily lives. However, "瀣" is not a word Chinese people encounter very often in their daily conversations. Although the word "洗瀣物" reproduced the content of "washing" but it can not reflect the degree of formality of the original word. Thus it fail to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．

Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. So let us look at a example of it.
Example 2：
Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)
Xu Chi's Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有冻馁之忧。(徐迟 2009, 83)

In original text, the first adjective "poor" is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered "cold and hungry" into a four-character noun phrase "冻馁之忧" which means which appears uncoordinated with three adjectives "邋遢", "褴褛" and "粗野" being placed before the noun phrase "冻馁之忧". What is more, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.

Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the following analysis.
Example 3：
I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house, and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill, in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)
Xu Chi's Translation：
我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)

As we can see from the example, these verbs in the original text are concise and they are common in our daily speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word "see" into "考察" which sounds serious and formal, because "考察" means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as "考察人" or "考察情况". So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.

=====Expressive Meaning=====
The lexical meaning of a word or lexical unit may be thought of as the specific value it has in a particular linguistic system. But it is rarely possible to analyze a word, pattern or structure into distinct components of meaning; Nevertheless, it is sometimes useful to play down the complexities of language temporarily in order to appreciate them and to be able to handle them better in the long run (Zgusta 1971, 67).

Roman Jakobson coined the term expressive or emotive as one of the functions of language. He described it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], which aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about and gives interjections as the prime example of this function (Jakobson 1960, 354).

It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness. Here is a exampe.
Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)
Xu Chi's Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子从大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)

According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, "sweeping" is the act of a sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.) in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of "flood tides", "westerly winds" and "ice" was destructive and therefore it is clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word "sweep" here reflects the speaker's negative attitude towards the possible outcome. Obviously, the word "冲掉" in Xu Chi's translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker's attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and ice. Xu ignored the author's emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause and thus he did not produce equivalence of "sweep".

====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====
Raffel (1994) points out that "the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said." So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should not be ignored.

In the original text, there are many short sentences with neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structures in translation and he adopted the method of literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text. Since both Chinese and English are discourse systems, literal translation can be a good way to deal with them.
Example 5:
It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137)
Xu Chi’s Translation:
这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)

This paragraph has a neat structure and neat antithesis, and it has pleasing and harmonious rhythm. The original text is composed of ten verses. Xu Chi retained the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value. And he paid attention to the rhythm of the original text and retained it in his translation, which makes his translation closer to the original text.

====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====
=====Metaphor=====
According to the Webster dictionary, "metaphor" means a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in drowning in money).
Example 6:
Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012, 7)
Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。 (徐迟 2009, 6）

The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are "public opinion" and "weak tyrant". There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason:"compared to our own private opinions". People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is slightly weak. The use of metaphor here shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly, expressing the meaning of the original text.

=====Pun=====
Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meanings in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) pointed out that "pun translation is unimportant but fascinating".

The use of puns in ''Walden'' is remarkable. The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two layers of meaning in a word, a phrase or a sentence, they are often used as a link between the preceding text and following text. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence of the text and its rhetorical and aesthetic effects.

Example 7：
If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)
Xu Chi's Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，—那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)

This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that "Walden" might come from "Walled-in". "Walled-in Pond", as a homophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu Chi wisely translated it as "围而得", retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the similar meaning. "围而得" maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph. It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.

=====Personification=====
Personification refers to the practice of representing objects, qualities as a human being in art and literature. People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things as human beings in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In ''Walden'', many natural objects, ranging from the lake to little ants are personified. There is a example below.

Example 8：
This further experience also I gained：I said to myself, I will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer, but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil, even with less toil and manurance, and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)
Xu Chi's Translation:
我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)

Thoreau shares his experience of growing beans and his plan for next summer with readers here. As we know, words like "sincerity", "truth", "simplicity", "faith" and "innocence" usually refer to qualities of humans. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds. Xu Chi reproduced the rhetorical feature of the original text very well.

===Conclusion===
The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary with complex and diverse sentence structure and the use of various rhetoric devices makes the translation work more difficult. To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need and linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also found that sentences in Xu Chi's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 12:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Leech.G.N. & M. H. Short. (1981). ''Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Newmark P. (2001). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.

Nida Eugene. (1982). ''Translating Meaning''. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.

Raffe. (1994). ''The Art of Translating Prose''. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．

Roman Jaobson. (1960). ''“Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language''. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Thoreau Henry David. (2012). ''Walden''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, INC.

Hu Zhuanglin 胡壮麟. （2015). 语言学高级教程 [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. Beijing：Peking University Press

Lv Jun & Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.

Wu Siying & Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. ''湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.

Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Yao Junwei 姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. ''外国文学研究'' [Study of Foreign Literature] 4 145-149.

Zhang Jianguo 张建国. (2005). 梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的语言风格探析 [Analysis on language Style of Walden By Thoreau]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报'' [Journal of Henan Commercial College] 03 106-107.

==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling MTI 英语笔译==

<center>王美玲 Wang Meiling</center>

===Abstract===

The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.

===Key words===

Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;

===摘要===

文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。

===关键词===

文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；

===1.Introduction===

The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice."First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas."（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）

Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?

===2.Brief Comments on Translation Thoughts in the Period of Renaissance===

Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. "In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist." Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68）

Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the "Chief Translator" of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.（Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）

Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of "trying to be comparable to the original work", and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a "feeling of beauty". （Tan Zaixi，2004：68-69）

The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre.(Tan Zaixi，2004：76-77）

From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance.Liu Junping said: "In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. "（liu Junping,2009:76）

Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. "The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers." (Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）

This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.

In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language.(Tan Zaixi，2004：83）

Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.(Tan Zaixi，2004：64）

===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===

====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====

Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as "the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century". Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.(Liu Hongyan,2010:1）

Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the "first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.(Tan Zaixi，2004：68）

====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====

=====3.2.1 Lu Xun's "Foreignization"=====

Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of "Foreignization" , which preserved the "exoticism". Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of "Foreignization" could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, "Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution."（Chen Fukang,2000;286）

With regard to his translation concept of "Foreignization", he had such remarks :

“还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)

From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to "conveying feelings" and "improving education", and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.

=====3.2.2 Luther's "Domesticization"=====

In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that " Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German."
In the ''A Short History of Translation in the West'', Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)

"Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise."

Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of "naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.

====3.3 Conclusion====

Lu Xun's translation principle of "Foreignization", which preserved "exoticism", satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.

Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.

Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.(Liu Hongyan，2010:2）

===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===

Engels praised Luther:"Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century." (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.

'''Example one '''

“You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”

“The translator can change the word order of the original text”

“严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）

Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of "拉开" can only be issued by human beings, and the "心幕" is not a physical object which cannot be "pulled open". In the process of translation, we find that the action of "拉开" does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of "拉开" and "心幕" is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb "拉开", which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose"涌出" as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb "unveil". Naturally, the phrase "五年前的一个印象" becomes the subject. scene of five years ago", and the word "before" was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation "A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye." It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to "The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the "心幕" and the "印象" is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of "faithfulness", meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.

'''Example Two'''

“The necessary conjunctions can be added.”

“作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）

After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences.(Zhang Sijie,Zhang Bairan,1998:54)

Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.

'''Example Three'''

The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”

“不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）

Translators find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word "奋斗" may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to "奋斗", the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be "struggle", "fight", and "strive", one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is "raising flowers", which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the "奋斗" of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word "struggle" by using such phrases as "weather through", "carry on the struggle for existence" to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.

'''Example Four'''

“Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”

In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, "One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him."（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.

Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.

===5.Conclusion ===

In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.(Tan Zaixi，2004：67）

After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's ''A Short History of Translation in the West'' and Chen Fukang's ''A History of Translation Theory in China'', the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.

As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by more practice.

===6.References===

[1]Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.

[2]Chen Fukang 陈福康.(2000).中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China].

[3]Liu Hongyan 刘红岩.(2010). 鲁迅与马丁·路德翻译思想对比研究 [A Comparative Study of Lu Xun's and Martin Luther's translation Thoughts]

[4]Liu Junping 刘军平.(2009).西方翻译理论通史[A General History of Western Translation Theory]

[5]Lu Xun 鲁迅.(1935).鲁迅全集.[The Complete Works of LU Xun]

[6]Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史.[A Short History of Translation in the West]

[7]Zhang Sijie, Zhang Bairan 张思洁,张柏然.(1998).意合与形合.[Parataxis and Hypotaxis]

==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638 英语口译==

<center>康浩宇 Kang Haoyu</center>

===Abstract===

In interpreting, interpreter's memory plays an important role, and the level of the memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. How interpreter's memory ability works is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of "memory", appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretating, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper explores the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretating industry from the principle of memory.

===Keywords===

Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting

===摘要===

在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。译者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。

===关键词===

记忆；翻译记忆；口译

===1 Introduction===

'''1.1 Background'''

Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a part of interpreter's competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognizes and keeps the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decodes the information into the target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019).

With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective ways for translation. In CAT, there is a tool called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness in this aspect(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).

'''1.2 Significance of the Study'''

There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have a better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address their problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on the memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism and effects(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it refers to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improves the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory application in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

'''1.3 Structure of the Study'''

This thesis will be developed in five chapters.
Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.
Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.
Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.
Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.
The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.

===2 Study on Memory===

'''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''

Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things in the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience of human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus of the brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and it is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).

'''2.2. Memory Systems'''

Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''

As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity has more than 9 chunks while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about 5 chunks. The "chunks" here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be further processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''

Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short term memory will be transferred to long term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which stores information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappearance of short term memory is often due to the interruption.

'''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''

Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for a long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.

'''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''

Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters' listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).

'''2.3.1 Memorizing'''

Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).

According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).Unconscious memorization refers to the memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).

Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes "what to remember" and "how to remember". "What to memorize" determines the direction and content of memorization, and "how to memorize" is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However,as for memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).

'''2.3.2 Keeping'''

Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the "image" in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26).

Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).

'''2.3.3 Recalling'''

The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of the intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In the aspect of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).

'''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''

Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).

'''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''

The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).

'''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''

Recency effect, also put forward by an American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).

Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).

Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).

===3 Memory in Interpreting===

In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of the original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).

'''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''

When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of the internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).

Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).

Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).

'''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''

In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the "Deverbalization Mode" theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).

"Deverbalization Mode" theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41).

In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).

Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of the input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of "semantic retrieval", identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).

'''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''

'''3.3.1 Logical Memory'''

Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of "recalling" and "interpreting". In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for the interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

'''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''

Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of the information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.

“同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)

The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.

“Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”

From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).

'''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''

In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity has only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).

There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.

“环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)

And the official translation is given as followed.

“Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”

In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).

===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===

'''4.1 Translation Memory'''

With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).

'''4.1.1 Definition'''

Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more "smart" and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).

'''4.1.2 Mechanism'''

The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).

Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful when translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)

'''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''

'''4.2.1 Current Situation '''

Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).

The first stage is the pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. On the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).

'''4.2.2 Limitations'''

Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of the limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.

As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).

As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).

===5 Conclusion===

A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.

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== The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan 202070080609 英语笔译==

=== Abstract ===
Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention.
The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation.

=== Keywords ===

Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation

=== 摘要 ===

人类已经进入多媒体时代，语言作为一种单一的模态形式已经无法充分表达交际的意义。因此，我们还需要一些其他的情态手段加以加强，以充分表达意义，达到交际的目的，如声音、视觉形象、色彩等。因此，多模态一词引起了语言学家的兴趣和关注。
本文以多模态话语分析理论为基础，旨在在多模态话语分析理论框架下分析以下三个方面：1。多模态在电影《本杰明·巴顿》中的体现，则旨在分析在多模态话语分析的理论框架下，字幕和多模态如何结合起来构建整体意义。第二个目标是讨论电影字幕与其他情态动词的关系，以及不同情态动词之间的关系。三。通过对电影字幕在翻译过程中的整体意义的分析，本文试图对电影字幕翻译提出一些建议。

=== 关键词 ===

多模态语篇分析；视听产品；字幕翻译

=== Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===

''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''

At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language.
Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years.
In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples.

However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis.
In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress & Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress & Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress & Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use.

In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.

''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''

Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level

''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''

Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called "complementary relationship", while the other is called non-complementary relationship.

Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.

=== Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===

''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''

With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as "a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts". (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s.
Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. "Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation." (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)

''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''

Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics:
Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect.

Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities.
Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.
Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed.
Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.

''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''

''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''

It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.

''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''

The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.

''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''

As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film.
There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

=== Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of "Benjamin Button" From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===

''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamin Button' '''

'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.
The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.

''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''

''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''

Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that "the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible". In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.
The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of "rejuvenate" is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.
In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.

When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”
The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)
There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”
The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26任总统)”
In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, "Mr. cake" suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called "Teddy Roosevelt" will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means "cake" in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of "Teddy".

''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''

In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.
When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.”

Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.
When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase "sweep you off your feet" means "to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you"（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to "fall in love" with her but "I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly"(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.

''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''

The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.
“Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of "well" does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.
“You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。”

As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.
For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:
Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)
Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)
The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.

''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''

Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.

Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.
Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: "he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.". (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.

=== Chapter Four Conclusion ===

The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of "rejuvenation" as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.

=== References ===

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[3] Forceville. Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis: A Multimedia Toolkit and Coursebook [J]. Journal of Pragmatics, 2007, 1235-1238.

[4] Edgar Bernad-Mechó. Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Link⁃ ing Metadiscursive Elements in Two Opencourseware Lectures (MOOCs)[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences.2015, 61-66.

[5] Aylanda Dwi Nugroho. The Generic Structure of Print Adver⁃ tisement of Elizabeth Arden’s INTERVENE: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis [J]. DOAJ.2009, 70-85.

[6] Feng Xia封霞.文化翻译视角下的电影字幕翻译——以《哈利·波特》系列电影为例 [Film subtitle translation from the perspective of cultural translation] [J]. 才智.2016.

[7] 刘金菁. 多模态话语分析对高中英语词汇教学的启示 [The Enlightenment of multimodal discourse analysis on senior high school English Vocabulary Teaching] [J]. 教育教学论坛.2014.

[8] Liu Xiuli刘秀丽; 张德禄; 张宜波.外语教师多模态话语与学生学习积极性的关系研究 [Zhang Yibo. A study on the relationship between multimodal discourse of foreign language teachers and students' learning enthusiasm] [J]. 外语电化教学.2013.

[9] Kan Feng阚凤.模态话语分析视角下的电影字幕翻译——以电影《哈利·波特与混血王子》为例 [Film subtitle translation from the perspective of modal discourse analysis: a case study of Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince] [J].理论观察,2014.

[10] Shen Guorong沈国荣.论《哈利·波特》电影字幕翻译 [On the subtitle translation of Harry Potter] [J].电影文学,2013.

[11] Sun Yi孙毅.多模态话语意义建构——以2011西安世界园艺博览会会徽为基点 [Sun Yi. The construction of multimodal discourse meaning -- Based on the emblem of 2011 Xi'an International Horticultural Exposition] [J]. 外语与外语教学.2012.

[12] Xu Xie徐协.中国元素广告的多模态话语分析 [Multimodal discourse analysis of Chinese element advertising] [J]. 当代传播.2013.

[13] Yao Qun姚群. 基于态度系统的《哈利·波特》字幕与配音翻译研究 [A study on the subtitle and dubbing translation of Harry Potter based on attitude system] [A]. 北京交通大学.2017.

[14] Zhang Delu张德禄.多模态话语分析综合理论框架探索 [On the comprehensive theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis] [J].中国外语, 2009.

[15] Zhou Shan周姗.多模态视角下的俄语公益广告话语分析[Discourse analysis of Russian public service advertisements from the perspective of multimodality] [A]. 北京外国语大学.2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company 陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 202070080582 MTI 英语笔译==

<center>陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 202070080582 MTI 英语笔译</center>

===Abstract===

Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and enjoys a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of "The Belt and Road Initiative" and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in the international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers.

As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, many problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions.

According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation involves language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between the source language and the target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, tring to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions.

===Key words===

Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation; Adaptation Theory; Yulin Pharmaceutical Company

===摘要===

中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。

药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。

比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。

===关键词===

中医药品说明书翻译；顺应论；玉林制药公司

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background of the Study====

As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since "The Belt and Road Initiative" proposed for the first time, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. (Ou Xiufang, 2020)

As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaging in R&D, production and sales of TCM. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumers' safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. The quality translation of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. (Ou Xiufang, 2020)

====1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study====

It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence the necessity to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive way and to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. (Cao Qing, 2011)

Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, who thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between the source language and the target language. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications, and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among the foreign medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

===2. Features of TCM Instructions===

Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers' safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications because the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

What's more, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derive from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times. The peculiar traits of TCM language, and the technical terms, directly or indirectly, come from the abstract medical concepts of TCM. The classical style or semi-classical style used in ancient times remains. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn't been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language in Chinese can find no equivalence in English, hence the difficulty in translating them into English. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

===3. Introduction of Adaptation Theory===

Adaptation Theory was firstly proposed in 1987 by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, the secretary general of International Pragmatics Association. And then it has been developed and modified for several times over years, attracting a lot of attention in the linguistics community with its integrated system and solid philosophical foundation. In the book, ''Understanding Pragmatics'', Verschueren describes that "language use must consist of the continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, for language-internal and/or language-external reasons." (Verschueren, 2000)

In other words, when making linguistic choices, language users are influenced by the internal structure of language and the external factors. Verschueren attaches great importance to the adaptation of linguistic structures and contexts, and takes communication as a conscious language choice-making process and dynamic adaptability. The essence of communication and expression is a dynamic process, and the context will change along with communication, thus, language forms and strategies should be taken into consideration so as to comply with the context and achieve effective communication. (Verschueren, 2000)

====3.1 Three Properties of Language====

According to Verschueren, there are three properties in language: variability, negotiability and adaptability, and it is the reason why we can make choices during language usage. "These three properties are inseparable with one another, variability and negotiability being the foundation, the ultimate purpose and core is adaptability." (Verschueren, 2000)

Variability provides a large number of linguistic choices during the process of language usage, and lays a basic foundation for the realization of negotiability and adaptability. Negotiability means language users will go through negotiation with themselves when choosing the most appropriate forms and strategies so as to make adaptation and fulfil the communicative intention. As the core of language property, adaptability enables language users to make linguistic choices provided by variability, and then negotiate to decide which choice to be made in accordance with different language contexts. (Verschueren, 2000)

As mentioned above, these three properties are inseparable with one another. Variability and negotiability make it possible and available for language users to choose the proper form and strategy of a language when making adaptation to a specific language context. (Verschueren, 2000)

====3.2 Four Aspects of Investigation====

Based on the guidance of Adaptation Theory, Verschueren advocates four aspects of investigation in linguistic research, namely, contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability, dynamics of adaptability and salience of adaptation process. (Verschueren, 2000)

Contextual correlates of adaptability "potentially includes all the ingredients of the communicative context with which linguistic choices have to be inter-adaptable." These ingredients include language users, the physical world, the social world (such as social relations, culture, social status and social settings), and the mental world (personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations or intentions, etc.). Since it entails the objective and subjective factors and both sides of language users (utterer and interpreter), making adaptation to the context is of great significance. (Verschueren, 2000)

Structural objects of adaptability happens at all levels of the linguistic structures, ranging from codes and styles, words and clauses, to sentences and prepositional structures. In order to adapt to different cultures and linguistic structures, language users need to choose the most appropriate structure so as to build up the logical relationship and improve the readability and credibility in target language. (Verschueren, 2000)

Dynamics of adaptability means "the development of adaptability processes over time." It is created by the changes and development of language contexts and structures over time. And different words and translation strategies adopted in different contexts show the dynamic adaptability in language use. (Verschueren, 2000)

Salience of adaptation process refers to the various degree of consciousness in the process of making choices. The continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, covers exactly different levels of salience. (Verschueren, 2000)

In conclusion, as the indispensable parts in linguistic analysis, the four aspects of investigation are the necessary factors to explain and describe any given linguistic phenomenon.

===4. Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company===

From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, therefore, the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, there are some instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)

Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the Company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)

====4.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====

As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and the social world due to the limited materials collected. (Verschueren, 2000)

=====4.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World=====

Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers' mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. (Verschueren, 2000)

Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, which gives a sense of authority and credibility. (Ma Bangxin, 1998)

To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. "正骨水" is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, "Zheng Gu Shui", which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn't the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, "Bone-setting Liquor" would be a better name for the medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

"Bone-setting" means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and "liquor" implies alcohol and other irritating ingredients of the medicine. Consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds when seeing its name. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, "金装正骨水" can be translated to "Golden Bone-setting Liquor", and "极品正骨水" is rendered as "Superb Bone-setting Liquor". Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Another example, "睡安胶囊", the translation is "Shui'an Jiaonang". Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don't recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use "capsule" to indicate the type of this medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

A well-recognized name will arouse the attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang Lifeng advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. "Sleep Mate" or "Insomnia Killer" can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, "mate" is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such a combination, and "killer" combined with "insomnia" implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

=====4.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World=====

According to Verschueren, there is no principle limit to the range of social factors because linguistic choices are inter-adaptable. Basically, social settings and cultures play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point: (Zhou Shumei, 2013)

Example 1 (感冒止咳露)

Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛

Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia

Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles

Traditionally, "伤风" in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of "风" into the human body. "风" is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, "风" or "火", will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, "angina" and "melalgia" might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Besides, "nasal congestion" is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. The revised text, therefore, adopts "snuffle" and "sore throat" to indicate the meaning of "鼻塞" and "咽痛". The same goes to "肢痛", using "pain in muscles" to replace the word of "melalgia", hence the adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)

ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛

TT: Used for children's wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm

RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children

Similarly, example 2 also translates "伤风" into "wind damage", which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes "wind damage" and "exuberant phlegm", adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Literal translation is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers' social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible. (Nigel Wiseman, 2000)

====4.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn====

According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind. As indicated before, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the Company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)

=====4.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level=====

Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company: (Tang Xun, 2014)

Example 3 (蛤蚧补肾丸)

ST: 小便频数

TT: Frequent urination

Example 4 (金装正骨水)

ST: 祛风除湿

TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness

RT: Relieve rheumatic pain

Example 5 (珍黄丸)

ST: 消肿止痛

TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain

RT: Relieve swelling pain

Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. "祛风除湿" is a typical example. "风湿" is a disease caused by the invasion of "风" into the human body. If "风邪" cannot be removed from the body soon, "湿" will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, "祛风" is actually the result of "除湿", and vice versa. "消肿止痛" means that the pain is caused by swelling. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

In example 3, "小便频数" is translated into "Frequent urination", the structure of "adjective + noun" in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. Accordingly, the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into "Relieve rheumatic pain" and "Relieve swelling pain", not only implying the causal relationship in TCM language, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Example 6 (感冒止咳露)

ST: 止咳化痰

TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm

RT: Relieve cough and sputum

Example 7 (乌军治胆片)

ST: 疏肝解郁

TT: To course the liver and resolve depression

RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver

In the above two examples, "止咳化痰" is translated into "Suppress cough and transform phlegm". It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn't work well, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context and translate in isolation. "化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, hence the key words being "咳" and "痰", not the verbs. So the translation of "Relieve cough and sputum" would be more comprehensible and readable. (Nigel Wiseman, 2000)

And the example of "疏肝解郁" is actually another one that can be shown the casual relationship in TCM language. "疏" and "解" deliver the same meaning in such context, and "肝郁" is not the meaning of "depression of liver", but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract "Qi" in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into "Relieve Qi stagnation in liver" retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

=====4.2.2 Summary=====

Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation and make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English. (Verschueren, 2000)

From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the Company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level. It is found that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity. (Verschueren, 2000)

With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in the target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

====4.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====

As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren "...strategies are always involved in any type of communication." It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. (Verschueren, 2000)

The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the Company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 8 (正骨水)

ST: 舒筋活络

TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture

Example 9 (金装正骨水)

ST: 舒筋活络

TT: To relax and activate tendons

As for the translation of "舒筋活络", example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using "tendons" to express the meaning of "筋络". (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Besides the different specifications of "正骨水" and "金装正骨水", the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 10 (金装正骨水)

ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力

TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells

Example 11 (筋骨王)

ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。

TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells

Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of "增强" can be expressed by "improve" and "increase", and translators employs "partial" and "local" to express the meaning of "局部". As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Example 12 (睡安胶囊)

ST: 清心除烦

TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation

Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)

ST: 壮阳益肾

TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney

Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. "清心除烦" is rendered into "To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation", and "To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney" is more like the paraphrase of "壮阳益肾". Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers' mind in a better way. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people in these examples, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between thd source language and the target language. According to Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. (Verschueren, 2000)

As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible. (Yuan Binye, 2009)

===Conclusion===

Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of "The Belt and Road Initiative", TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. (Verschueren, 2000)

Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn't deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

While at the same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and acceptable by target cultures and consumers. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)

From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. (Zhou Shumei, 2013)

The author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners. And free translation and domestication should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)

Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.

===References===

Nigel Wiseman. (2000). Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach. University of Exeter.

Verschueren J. (1987). Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation. International Pragmatic Association.

Verschueren J. (2000). ''Understanding Pragmatics''. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. (2018). 玉林制药公司 http://www.chinayulin.com/

Cao Qing 曹情. (2011). ''中文药品说明书的翻译'' [Translation of Chinese Drug Instructions]. Hunan: University of South China 南华大学.

Ma Bangxin 马邦新. (1998). 英文药品说明书的翻译 [Translation of English Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' [Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal] (3)16-18.

Ou Xiufang 欧秀芳. (2020). ''“一带一路”背景下中药贸易研究现状分析'' [Analysis on the Business Studies of Traditional Chinese Medicine under the Background of the Belt and Road Initiative]. Gansu: Gansu University Of Chinese Medicine 甘肃中医药大学.

Ouyang Lifeng 欧阳利锋. (2002). 中医药说明书的英译 [English Translation of TCM instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' [Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal] (2)17-20.

Tang Xun 唐勋. (2014). ''基于目的论的中医药说明书翻译'' [Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions Based on the Skopos Theory]. Hunan: Central South University 中南大学.

Xiao Qiong 肖琼. (2008). ''中医药说明书的翻译'' [Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. Guangdong: Guangdong University of Foreign Studies 广东外语外贸大学.

Yuan Binye 袁斌业. (2009). 语言顺应论对翻译的启示 [Enlightenment of Linguistic Adaptation Theory on Translation]. ''四川外国语学院院报'' [Journal of Sichuan International Studies University] (9)111-113.

Zhou Shumei 周书梅. (2013). 顺应论视角下的翻译研究 [Translation Studies from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory]. ''山东省农业管理干部学院学报'' [Journal of Shandong Agricultural Engineering College] 30(5)138-140.

--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 03:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=Machine Translation=
==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==
<center>莫玲 Mo Ling </center>

===Abstract===

Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also prospered in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of "1 + 1 > 2". This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.

===Key Words===

Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility

===题目===

机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？

===摘要===

科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。

===关键词===

人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合

===Introduction===

In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology.(He Liutao 2018,17)

Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on human to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique.(Liang Jie 2020,18)

Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” Toward this doubt, The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)

Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.

===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===

====2.1 Human Translation====

=====2.1.1 The Advantages =====

As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges.Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them have an encyclopedic knowledge. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

Thirdly, people have a capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

=====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====

However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result it causes a repetition of the same work they have done before.It is shown from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)

Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)

====2.2 Machine Translation====

=====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====

In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimum choice for many people.（Zhu Chaowei 2018,102）

Besides the adoption in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. "Translation headset" is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. "After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network)," said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. " Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).

With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has developed a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,21)

=====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====

Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation.(Liang Jie 2020,17)In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:

江雪

唐柳宗元

千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。

孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。

'''Version of Baidu Translation'''

River Snow

Birds flying away,

The trail of thousands of people;

A lone boat with a straw hat,

Fishing alone in cold river snow.

'''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''

Fishing in snow(Xu Yuanchong,2000)

From hill to hill no bird in flight,

From path to path no man in sight;

A lonely fisherman afloat

Is fishing snow in lonely boat.

Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty described in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may be puzzled about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)

Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meanings of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.

Example:

When Zhang San is sending money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please pay attention to the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,22)

领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)

张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)

领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)

张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)

领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)

张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)

领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)

Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology is always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)

From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

====3. Computer-Aided Translation====

To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to a half-automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====

=====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====

Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a "language database storing the original text and its translation". During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT is also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation.(Chen Yi 2018,31)

The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also produce corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).

=====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====

After stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator,it is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.(Chen Yi 2018,31)

Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation.(Global Encyclopedia)

Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).

=====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====

After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the number of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofreading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).

====3.2 Current Situation====

Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before.(Hua Fuwei 2015.8.5,Douban)

However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only store hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge an idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want.(He Liutao 2018,18)

Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, and thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person.(Yao Li 2020,202)

====3.3 Prospect====

Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation softwares. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)

===4. Suggestions===

Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the unstoppable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. There is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,108)

In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly pursued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”.(Qiu Cui, Chen Xue 2012,8)

At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperors, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick.(Qiu Cui & Chen Xue 2012,8)

In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the outbreaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they had lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts were intensified. Finally, the Revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down.(Qiu Cui,Chen Xue 2012,8-9)

Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this technology is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.(Liang Jie 2020,18）

In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. Similarly Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the deficiency of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are "985" universities and "211" universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)

In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pays much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period, most of our courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to CAT courses.(Lv Lisong & Mu Lei 2007,37)

This may resulted from the lack of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)

In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourages the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more teachers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has opened a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106-108)

===5. Conclusion===

Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

Human beings are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind is familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)

While the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165).

In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth.

At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the computer-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

===References===

Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.

Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation "Fishing in Snow"] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.

He Liutao. 何刘涛.(2018) 人工智能背景下计算机辅助翻译在中国发展的思考[On the Development of Computer-aided Translation in China Under the Background of Artificial Intelligence] 英语广场[English Square], 17.

计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.

Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.

Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong. 罗华珍,潘正芹,易永忠. (2017) 人工智能翻译的发展现状与前景分析[Analysis of the Development and Prospect of Artificial Intelligence Translation] 电子世界[Electronics World], 21.

Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.

Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.

计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.

Qiu Cui,Chen Xue. 仇萃, 陈雪. (2012) 浅析中国的闭关锁国政策[On China's closed door policy] 现代物业[Modern property Management],8.

Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.

Xu Yuanchong. 许渊冲. (2000) 唐诗三百首[Translation of Three Hundred Tang Poems].

Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.

Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 102-108.

==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi MTI 英语笔译==

'''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''

英语笔译袁天翼

摘要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。

关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略

'''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

'''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation.

'''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies

'''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

'''I. Introduction'''

"The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English." (Reiss 2004,12).

"As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture".（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live.

'''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''

Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. "Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities."（Yang Yang 2020, 34）

Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? "Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)

Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.

Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”.

Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”.

Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”.

Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. "

Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, "Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs."

However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.

"In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation ."(Lv Hefa 2005,38)

“The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements in thirteen service fields. "Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication."(Wang Xunian 2020,69)

To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. "Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication ".(Pinkham John 2000, 156)

'''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''

'''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''

To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. "There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs."(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)

[[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&fm=27&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake.

Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.

A public sign in the Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads "Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor". More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake.

Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc.

No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads "The rockery danger, pleases no climb", whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”

First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, and this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it.

3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation

Knowing a little about English, and beginning to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate."Some common mistakes in public signs translation in daily life have brought a very bad impact on the image of the city; What's more, it will affect China's international image."(Zheng Yuguo 2020,138)

On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. "To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese."(Pang Yan 2020, 34)

No.4, this is a sign hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads "out of the cup area". It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine.

As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate.

Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that, a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!All those will bring big and standing jokes.

No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads" tourists get off area". Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run.

Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads "up the mountain". The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management.

No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads "more China, more fashion". At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”.

Once foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?

'''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''

It is just the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. "Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning."(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)

[[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8
[https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]

No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error.

[[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”.

[[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10
[https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public
sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve.

As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong.

Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”.

3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information

Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes."Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world."(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)

No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads " carefully hot". Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected.

[[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12
[https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&fm=27&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean?

I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay.

[[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13
[https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&fm=15&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch
your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners.

Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay.

Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”.

From so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. "As an important part of the translation industry, the translation of public signs has high academic value and research value."(Qian Zheng 2020, 191)

At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. "Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics."(Liu Hui 2020, 43)

IV. Public Sign Translation Methods

There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, "the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds.

'''4. 1 Amplification'''

Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. "Public signs, as an important window for the external publicity of the city image, are increasingly valued in their English translation status"(Fu Li 2020, 123)

For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. "Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis."(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)

'''4. 2 Ellipsis'''

To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”.

'''4. 3 Re-translation'''

Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”.

'''4. 4 Backward Translation'''

Here are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”.
The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. "

'''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''

"Theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. "(He Xueyun 2006,57)

When doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. "To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image."(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)

'''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''

The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error.

“This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing.

One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes
“Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”

'''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''

One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning.

The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity.

'''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''

When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples.

“Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake.

'''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''

As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth.
For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail.

Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added.

'''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''

China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. "In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs."(Ding Ying 2020,78)

High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. "Public signs are the most common practical language in people's lives."(Gu Zhe 2020, 102)

At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. "Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation."(Li Jing 2020, 229)

High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China."The translation error of public signs is mainly due to the translator's lack of adequate understanding of the linguistic and cultural framework of English."(Guan Chen 2020, 79)

Internally, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. "It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image" .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)

In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. "The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs."(Song Yanbei 2020,64)

"The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication". (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go.

There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. "Only when the relevant departments attach great importance to public signs and the people cooperate closely, the translation of public signs can be solved and improved."(Li Huiwen 2020, 23)

'''VII. Conclusion'''

So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. "Whether there are standards and norms for translating public signs into English in public places has a direct impact on foreign friends' impression of a city, which directly reflects the degree of internationalization of the city."(Song Yanbei 2020 ,61)

Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. "It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures". (Liu Xiaoping, 2019)

A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream.

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