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Cult Turn EN 6

2022-01-02T06:26:55Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Conclusion */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (Wang Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is(are corrected by--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:17, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In this paragraphy,I think the author could introduce some opinions of other representative personages such as Lefevere.(corrected by --[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:17, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

==== Research Objective and Significance====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. According to Bassnett, translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better. As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture. As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference. Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.(Zeng Wenxiong,2006:45)

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:23) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:15) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:26) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:16)

I think the author could note in which books these characters are writing their ideas.(corrected by--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:22, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, Wang Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(Sun Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. Xie has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(Xie Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48) Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48)Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:54) While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou
Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .
Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100) In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival
On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?
The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:63) Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.
Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .
Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156) This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:34)

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. (Hervey & Higgins,1992:12)The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month
For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .
Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98) And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. (Liu Xiaoying,2013:24)Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Bassnnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:62)The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of this paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

From this conclusion, except the positive effects, what are the negative effects of cultural turn for the translation of poems and il's a shock to local cuture？(corrected by --[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Bassnett, Susan.(2002)Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere.(1990)Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

Bassnett, Susan,(2001)Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M.(2004)Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

Xu Tingting徐婷婷.(2021) 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2007)苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Changsha:Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

Liu Xiaoying刘小影.(2013)文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.(2012)创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.(2006)翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.(2006)对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.(2006)“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

20211229 homework

2021-12-30T13:53:49Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-30T13:49:51Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-30T13:45:14Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491 */

20211208 homework

2021-12-30T13:42:40Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491 */

20211110 homework

2021-12-30T13:33:39Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211110_homework|for Nov 10 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] etc.

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==
按语：拙著《红楼梦全解本》出版后，受到了不少专家与读者的好评，甚为欣慰。但也有读者认为，如果能删掉部分注文，既不影响读者阅读，也可节省书的成本，使更多读者买得起。

Note : After the publication of ''The Dream of Red Mansions(The Anotation Version)'', it was highly appreciated by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some notes can be deleted, it will not affect readers ' reading and save the cost of the publication, so that more readers can afford it.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 10:02, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Note: after my book the complete interpretation of Drdam Of Red Chamber was published, it was highly praised by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some annotations can be deleted, it will not affect readers' reading, but also save the cost of the book and make it affordable for more readers.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:53, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==
恰好中央编译出版社准备出版四大古典小说套书，为了平衡四部小说的注文，《红楼梦》的注文也嫌太长。因此接受读者的建议，将《红楼梦全解本》的注文删掉了差不多一半，其他一概未动；换言之，此版《红楼梦》校注本，实即《红楼梦全解本》的删节本（仅删注文）。因此《校注前言》仍用《红楼梦全解本》的《校注前言》，不再另写。

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of Dream Of the Red Chamber were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of Dream Of Red Chamber is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, the preface to proofreading still uses the preface to proofreading of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and needn’t be written again.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 06:36, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'', and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, ''The Preface to Proofreading'' still uses ''The Preface to Proofreading'' of the complete interpretation of ''Dream Of Red Chamber'', and needn’t be written again.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:32, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==
《红楼梦》以其包罗万象的内容，博大精深的思想，精湛完美的艺术，丰富生动的语言，尤其是众多栩栩如生的人物形象，不仅在中国小说史上奇峰独秀，而且在世界文学之林独树一帜。它是我国文化遗产中的珍品，值得每一个中国人所珍视。《红楼梦》在其尚未完稿的时候，已经被人竞相传抄，辗转传阅，不胫而走，蜚声神州。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is unique not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature with its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth cherishing by every Chinese. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire even when it's unfinished. It is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is outstanding not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature for its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth being cherished by every Chinese.Before it is finished， ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire and it is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 00:25, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480 ==
不仅“士大夫几乎家有《红楼梦》一书”（清·潘炤《从心录》卷首），而且“家弦户诵，妇孺皆知”（清·缪艮《文章游戏初编》卷六）。上层社会更出现了“开谈不说《红楼梦》，读尽诗书也枉然”（清·得舆《京都竹枝词·时尚门》）的时尚。《红楼梦》的魅力也使其商业价值大增，“好事者每传抄一部，置庙市中，昂其值，得数十金，可谓不胫而走者矣”（清·程伟元《〈红楼梦〉序》）。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' was so popular that not only scholar officals（people obtain knowledge and wealth in feudal China） read it （the first volum of ''Essay'' by Pan Zhao, Qing），but also families，even women and children ， loved it（the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing）. Moreover ,there was a climate of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' that the upper class believed " it is useless to read great books without ''A Dream of Red Mansions''.（''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing）. The charm of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' also rose its business value as in record： “Someone who is willing to copy ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' and sell it can raise 10 gold ingots everytime ，and everyone know it.（ the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing）.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 09:44, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Not only did "almost every scholar had a copy of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''" (the first volum of Essay by Pan Zhao, Qing Dynasty), but "Every household recited it, and all women and children knew it" (the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing Dynasty). In the upper class, the fashion of "If you don't talk about ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', you can read all the poems and books in vain" (''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing Dynasty) emerged. The charm of A Dream of Red Mansions also made its commercial value increased greatly, "Those who are interested in it can get a lot of money by copying one of the books and selling it in the market. The information spread quickly." (the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing Dynasty)--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 07:07, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==
至高鹗续写后四十回、由程伟元以活字正式出版完整的一百二十回本后，更出现了风行全国的盛况。时至今日，即使读不懂《红楼梦》的人，也都看过《红楼梦》电影或电视剧，对《红楼梦》的故事和人物无不耳熟能详。因此《红楼梦》已经不是普通的小说，而成为全民珍视的国宝了。

After Gao E continued to write the second forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:39, 8 November 2021 (UTC)
After Gao E continued to write the following forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide increasingly. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have already seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of it. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:37, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==
中国古代的文人墨客、传统学者、官僚士夫，无不鄙薄小说，最多被视为茶余饭后的谈资。唯独对《红楼梦》情有独钟，爱不释手。不仅百读不厌，而且像拜读经书般寻章摘句，眉批夹评，乐此不疲。
The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talk at most. But they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talks at most. However, they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only weren't tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 14:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==
久而久之，居然形成了“红学”。“红学”由起初对《红楼梦》的单纯评点，逐步发展成为对《红楼梦》及其作者的全面考证与研究，最后更成立了红学会，出版研究刊物，势头似乎越来越盛。这不仅是中国小说史上绝无仅有的，也是中国文学史上极其罕见的现象。

As time passes, redology is actually formed. Redology was about pure comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study in ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' and its author. Finally, we even established redologist institution and published research periodicals, the momentum of redology more and more flourishing. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 05:29, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

As time passes, redology is unexpectedly formed. Redology came into mere comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study of this work and its author. Finally, redologist institution was established to publish research periodicals with more flourishing tendency than ever. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 11:49, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnà 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==
遗憾的是，“红学家”们对《红楼梦》的作者及其版本似乎偏爱有加，而对《红楼梦》的思想和艺术价值却缺乏足够的兴趣，因此考证作者和版本的文章和著作连篇累牍，而研究《红楼梦》思想和艺术价值的成果却寥若晨星。我认为这是本末倒置。一个作家的价值不在于其生平如何，而在于其作品的思想和艺术水平的高低；是作品决定作家的价值，而不是作家决定作品的价值。

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seemingly are partial to research on the writer and verison of this book, but are short of interest for it's thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:31, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seem to prefer to research on the writer and versions of this book, but are short of interest in the thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:10, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==
读者对于作品的选择与评价，也只着眼于作品本身，而非作家本人。一部伟大的作品，即使作者佚名，也不影响其伟大，照样受到读者的追捧；相反，如果一个伟大作家偶然写了一部低劣的作品，读者也决不买账。因此“红学”的研究重点应该是《红楼梦》本身，而不是《红楼梦》作者。

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the valued of a great work is definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still welcomed by the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by the inferior work written by a great writer. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:01, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the values of a great work are definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still popular with the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by a low-quality work even written by a great writer occasionally. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 09:02, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==
当然也应该了解作者，但目的只是为了有助于深入了解《红楼梦》，仅此而已。我认为要想深入研究《红楼梦》，首先必须完全读懂《红楼梦》。如果对《红楼梦》的文本只是一知半解，那么所谓研究，势必如医生不明病人的病情而乱开药方，不仅治不好病，倒可能致人于死命。

Certainly, we should also know the author, but the purpose is nothing more than to help us understand ''A Dream of Red Chamber'' in depth. I think that in order to make a further research on ''A Dream of the Red Chamber'', we must first have a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Chamber'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions prescribed indiscriminately without knowing the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 13:53, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Certainly, we should also know about the author, but only with the purpose of deepening our understanding of the work. I think that further researches on ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' necessitate a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions written indiscriminately by a doctor unaware of the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:04, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==
《红楼梦》研究中的许多无谓争论，正是研究者没有读懂《红楼梦》或对《红楼梦》文本的不同理解所致。因此对《红楼梦》文本的注释，显然是《红楼梦》研究的基础工作。其次，当今的读者和观众虽然热衷于《红楼梦》，但真正能够全面深入理解《红楼梦》的人恐怕并不很多。

A great many arguments regarding the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', caused either by an incomplete understanding or different understandings of the text, are pointless. Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Many unnecessary arguments in the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' are caused by the researchers' failure to understand ''A dream of Red Mansions'' or their different understandings of the text.Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 11:14, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==
这是因为，《红楼梦》不是普通的白话小说，不是简单地为读者讲故事，不是为读者提供茶馀饭后的谈资，更不是为了赚稿费餬口（那时根本不存在稿费制度）。它不仅是一部反映封建社会的“百科全书”，而且作者还对人类共同关心的一些问题，如人生的目的、人性的善恶、爱情的真谛、宗教的精义等进行了探索。作品涉及的内容几乎无所不包，从至高无上的皇帝，到“芥豆之微”的细民，从国家的政治、军事、经济到百姓的日常生活，举凡天文、地理、动物、植物、建筑、服饰、医卜星相、琴棋书画等等，无不尽收笔底。

This is because ''a Dream of Red Mansions'' is not an ordinary vernacular novel. It is not simply a story for readers to read, not a topic for after-dinner conversation, or a way to earn a living (there was no contribution fee system at that time). It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also explores some common issues of human concern, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, the essence of religion and so on. The works cover almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the ordinary people, from national politics, military affairs, economy to the daily life of the people, including astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, clothing, medicine, astrology and practise divination, poetry and painting and so on, they're all in the book.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 13:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

It is because ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' is neither an ordinary novel in vernacular Chinese, nor a simple narrative or gossip for readers. The author wrote it not for remuneration for the system of remuneration for writters did not exist at that time. It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also an exploration of some issues of common concern to mankind, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, and the essence of religion. It covers almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the plebeian as tiny as reed, and from the politics, military and economy of the country to the daily life of the people. It includes astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, costumes, medicine, astrology, zither, chess, calligraphy and painting, and so on. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 11:48, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==
作者还调动了自己的全部才能和知识，汲取了前人的成果，撰写并引用了大量诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔、谜语、酒令等，作为描写人物、叙述故事、揭示主题的艺术手段，从而成为作品的重要组成部分。这其中蕴藏着许多成语、典故和各种知识，现在的一般读者是很难读懂的。此外，由于曹雪芹以其家事为《红楼梦》的蓝本，且暴露了不少家丑，如秦可卿的淫荡乱伦等，因而大量采用了《春秋》笔法，即作者所谓将“真事隐去”，以“假语村言”的曲折方式进行暗示或隐寓，致使《红楼梦》扑朔迷离，迷雾重重。

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and drew on the achievements of his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. This contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for Dream of the Red Chamber and exposed many family scandals, such as Frivolity Grain's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, adopted much of a writing style of ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", in the twisted way of "false words and village gossips", which has led to the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:28, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and took results from his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. The novel contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' and exposed many family scandals, such as Qin Keqing's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, frequently adopted a writing style of Spring and Autumn Annals, that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", using the twisted way of "false words and village gossips" to hint and make it metaphorical which has led to ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 08:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==
因此帮助广大读者读懂《红楼梦》，也是《红楼梦》研究者义不容辞的责任。而要使读者读懂《红楼梦》，只作简单的文字注释不解决问题，必须加以详细注释，将隐藏于《红楼梦》字里行间的寓意一一揭示出来，才能完全展示《红楼梦》的本来面貌。我从学生时代起就期待这种《红楼梦》的详注本出现，一直等了半个世纪，可惜望眼欲穿而不见踪影。

Therefore, it is incumbent on researchers of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' to help numerous readers understand the novel. For this, problem can’t be solved simply by text annotations. What should do is to add detailed explanatory notes to discover the meanings implied in characters, which can fully show the way the book originally is. I have expected the appearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student. I’ve waited for half a century, but it never comes out.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:46, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, it is our researchers' duty to heip numerous readers understand A Dream in Red Mansions. To do that, simple text annotations are not enough. And detailed explanatory notes are needed to discover its implied meanings, which can fully show its characteristics. Waiting for half century, I have expected the apppearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 01:49, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==
很显然，“红学家”的队伍虽然不断壮大，看来他们对这种注释工作似乎不屑一顾。于是我这个“红学”的门外汉便斗胆一试，结果试出了这个《红楼梦》校注本。我这是“人弃我取”，希望不至于冒犯任何人。

Obviously, the amount of redologists who are sepcalists in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay no attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing the things others gave up, which would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:52, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Obviously, the amount of redologists sepcalizing in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay little attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing things others gave up, which I hope would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==
如果能成为“引玉”之“砖”，即使要做“众矢之的”，招来“万箭攒射”，我也决不后悔，因为这也算是我对《红楼梦》读者的小小奉献了。下面仅就与校注工作有关的几个具体问题略作说明。

一、作者问题

If I can serve as a modest spur to induce someone to come forward with his valuable contributions, I will never regret even if I could be the target of public criticism. It is because that the annotation work is also my dedication to the readers of A Dream of Red Mansions. And I will explain a little about the specific questions in proofreading below. 1. The Question of Author--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 12:40, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

If I can become a "brick" for "inviting jade", even if I want to be "a target of all targets" and attract "a thousand arrows", I will never regret it, because this is also a small dedication to the readers of "A Dream of Red Mansions". The following is only a brief description of a few specific issues related to the proofreading work.
1. Author's question--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:06, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==
中国文学史中有两个突出现象：一是在封建时代得意并著名的文人不写小说；二是小说作品多不署名或只署化名。这完全是由封建统治者造成的。封建统治者的文学观是纯粹的政治功利主义，即所谓“文以载道”。

There are two outstanding phenomena in the history of Chinese literature: one is that famous and proud literati in the feudal era do not write novels; the other is that many novels do not sign or only sign pseudonyms. This is entirely caused by the feudal ruler. The feudal ruler’s literary view is pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "writing is used to carry Tao".--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:03, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

There are two prominent phenomena in the history of Chinese Literature: first, the proud and famous literati in the feudal era did not write novels; Second, most novels are not signed or only signed by pseudonyms. This was entirely caused by the feudal rulers. The literary view of feudal rulers was pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "literature carries Tao".--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==
他们认为小说不仅不能“载道”，而且往往“诲淫诲盗”，对封建统治构成威胁。因此不仅将小说排斥在正统文学之外，甚至常常以“禁毁”的方式加以扫荡。在文网森严及小说地位低贱的环境下，多数文人自然不敢或不屑从事小说的创作；而那些痴迷小说的作者也就不敢或不愿在小说作品上亮出自己的真名实姓。They faithfully believe that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to show their real names in their novels.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

They believed that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and of low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to sign their real names in their novels.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:18, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==
因此研究中国古代小说多了一项工作，即不得不对小说作者加以考证。《红楼梦》也不例外，它的作者连化名都未署一个。“红学家”们为了考证它的作者，不知耗费了多少精力和时间，然而由于史料不足，至今仍然众说纷纭,难以形成共识。

Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception. Its author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 01:57, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception, whose author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:39, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==
据我个人所知，至少就有七种说法：其一为“曹作高续”说。即认为曹雪芹写到八十回而去世，并可能留下了后四十回的某些提纲以及部分书稿；高鹗根据曹雪芹的这些提纲、书稿以及前八十回中的许多暗示，还可能参考了其他人的续作，完成了后四十回的创作，并对前八十回加以修订，从而使《红楼梦》成为完璧。
As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters when the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished. --[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:27, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao had passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters while the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 13:04, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==
其二为“曹作程续高订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是程伟元，高鹗只是参加了全书的修订工作。其三为“曹作高续程订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是高鹗，程伟元则对曹雪芹的前八十回加以修订。

The second is the theory of "Cao came to write, Cheng continued to write, Gao to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only participated in the revision of the whole book. The third is the theory of "Cao came to write, Gao continued to write, Cheng to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Gao E, and Cheng Weiyuan revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 12:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The second statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Chen, and revised by Gao". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only revised the whole book. The third statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Gao, and revised by Chen". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Gao E, and Cheng Weiyaun made revisions to the first 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:56, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==
其四为“曹作某续高订”说。即认为在程伟元和高鹗之前，已有人为曹雪芹的未完稿续写完全，程伟元将搜集到的抄本交由高鹗修订，然后刊行。其五为“曹作程高修订”说。

The fourth statement said that “Started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao”. That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished writing. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected this hand-copied version and provided it for Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published . The fifth statement said that “Started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao ”.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 08:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth statement said that "This masterpiece is started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao". That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished work. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected these hand-copied drafts and offered them to Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published. The fifth statement noted that "It was started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:52, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==
即认为曹雪芹已经完成了《红楼梦》全书，只是未遑修饰而去世，后由程伟元和高鹗共同修订并刊行。其六为“叔作侄订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是曹雪芹的叔父曹頫，也就是给《红楼梦》加批的“脂砚斋”；曹雪芹只是对它“披阅十载，增删五次”。

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', while as a result of his death it was not polished by himself, but co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Sixly, rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That was to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''. As a result of his death it was not published by himself. However, co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. Which shows, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the only one who added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just repeatedly revised it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 22:31, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', but died before he could polish it. As a result, the draft was co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. The sixth opinion is that this classic is the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That's to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 15:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==
其七为“某作曹订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是个与曹家毫不相干的无名氏，曹雪芹只是个修订者。“红学家”对《红楼梦》作者的意见分歧，使出版者无所适从，因而造成了新版《红楼梦》署名的混乱：或只署曹雪芹，或并署曹雪芹、高鹗，或干脆不署名。

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' is an anonymous person who has no relation with Cao’s family, and Cao Xueqin is only the reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:40, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' was an anonymous person who had no relation with the Cao’s, and Cao Xueqin was only a reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 11:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==
由于我对这个问题缺乏专门研究，只能在以上七种说法中加以选择。我认为这七种说法都有一定的根据，均非空穴来风。但相比之下，第一种说法的证据更为充分，也得到了学界的普遍认可，因此仍将曹雪芹和高鹗作为《红楼梦》的共同作者。

Because of a lack of specialized research to this question, I had to select from the seven statements above. I thought that the seven statements were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the evidence of first statement was more sufficient, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin Autor and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 01:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Being lacking in specialized research to this question, I had to select from the above seven versions . I thought that they were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the first statement was more credible, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==
至于这种说法的具体根据，以及两作者的生平，已见于不少专文，这里不再赘述。

二、版本问题

由于《红楼梦》创作过程和流传过程的特殊性，造成了《红楼梦》版本的复杂性。
We will not describe more about the specific reason of this opinion and lives of the two authors because a lot of scholars have discussed it.
二、Version problem
The unique process of creating and circulating A Dream in Red Mansions leads to such complicated versions of it.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:52, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

As well as the life of the two authors, has been seen in a number of articles, here will not be repeated.
Second, the version of the problem because of the "Dream of Red Mansions" creative process and the special nature of the process of circulation, resulting in the "Dream of Red Mansions" version of the complexity.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 04:36, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

而《红楼梦》版本的复杂性，又迫使我们不得不有所选择。《红楼梦》的创作和流传过程可以分为四个阶段：其一是曹雪芹的创作阶段。虽然曹雪芹自称“披阅十载，增删五次”，其实由于他溘然而逝，只留下了一部《红楼梦》的未完稿和未定稿。

The complexity of the version of a Dream of Red Mansions forces us to make choices. The creation and spread of a Dream of Red Mansions can be divided into four stages: one is Cao Xueqin Autor's creation stage. Although Cao Xueqin Autor, claimed that "reading for ten years, adding and deleting five times", in fact, because of his death, leaving only a dream of red Mansions unfinished and unfinished.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 08:59, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 13:16, 29 December 2021 (UTC)
The complexity of the version of a ''dream of Red Mansions'' forces us to choose. The creation and spread of the ''dream of Red Mansions'' can be divided into four stages: one is the creation stage of Cao Xueqin Autor. Although Cao Xueqin Autor claimed to "read for ten years, add and delete five times", in fact, due to his death, only one unfinished and undecided version of a dream of Red Mansions was left.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 14:16, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==
他只完成了八十回，约相当于全书的三分之二。他不仅未对这八十回的书稿进行修订润色，而且还有不少待补的缺文。以“红学家”认为最好的版本“庚辰本”为例：第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目；第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，“此回未成而芹逝矣”(脂砚斋批语)，以至不仅缺了主要人物贾宝玉、林黛玉和史湘云的灯谜，而且本回还有不少其他缺文；如此等等。
He completed only eighty times, about two-thirds of the book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised, but there was still much to be done. To the researcher of a dream of Red Mansions that the best version of the "gengchen Ben" as an example: the 17th, 18th round with a set of return, the 19th back no return; The twenty-second time to write rongguo Mansion for lantern riddle game, the chapter is unfinished but Cao Xueqin is dead (the ink stone lent comments), so that not only the lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant , Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, and this time there are many other lack of text; And so on.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 05:26, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He completed only eighty chapters, about two-thirds of the whole book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised and unpolished, but there was still much missing pages to be filled. Take the “Gengchen Version” as an example, which was considered the best version by Redology scholars, the 17th, 18th chapters kept the same content and the 19th had no content; The chapter 22, which was about Rongguo Mansion' lantern riddle game, was unfinished before Cao Xueqin passed away. (comments from the Ink Stone Lent), so that there was not only a lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, but also many other contents, and so on.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:53, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==
其二是曹雪芹《红楼梦》八十回本的传抄阶段，其间大约近三十年。由于抄书速度很慢，《红楼梦》的篇幅又很长，要想在短时间内抄完一部，需集多人之手。故多为达官显宦之家雇佣抄手，集体完成。

The second lay in the transmission and copying stage of 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin's ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to scribe it done in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials anddignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

The second stage is the transmission and copying of 80 chapters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by Cao Xueqin, which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to finish it in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials and dignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 05:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==
又因它是一部未完稿和未定稿，抄手便自觉或不自觉地加以增删修改；而抄手大多水平不高，且良莠不齐，鲁鱼亥豕，在所难免。从而导致大量异文乃至讹误的产生。其三是高鹗和程伟元续写后四十回并对全书进行修订和刊行的阶段。

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the scribes consciously or unconsciously added, deleted and modified it. Most scribes lacked skills and the level of copying varied in quality. Accordingly, it was inevitable that clerical errors occurred, which led to a large number of variant versions of the book and even misinterpretations in the text. The third was the stage when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan wrote a continuation of 40 chapters for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', revised and published the whole book.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 13:29, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the copywriters consciously or unconsciously added, deleted or modified it; Because most copywriters lacked skills and their level of copying varied in quality.so it was inevitable that led to a large number of different texts and even errors in the text. The third was the stage when E Gao and Weiyuan Cheng continued to write the last 40 chapters of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'',revised and published the whole book. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:47, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==
其间又可分为四段：首先由程伟元对各种《红楼梦》抄本加以搜集(其中可能包括无名氏续写的书稿)；其次由高鹗续写后四十回，并对前八十回进行大量修订(程伟元也可能参与了修订工作)；又次由程伟元于乾隆五十六年（公元1791年）用活字排印出版一百二十回本，后来被胡适先生命名为“程甲本”；次年由高鹗和程伟元对“程甲本”加以修订再版，后来又被胡适先生命名为“程乙本”。据说还有“程丙本”，如今已经不知下落，据个别看过的人说，较之“程乙本”改动甚少，因而可以置之不论。

It can be divided into four periods: firstly,Weiyuan Cheng collected various transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions ''(including the manuscripts of a sequel written by anonymous authors); Secondly,E Gao continued to write the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 chapters (Weiyuan Cheng may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Weiyuan Cheng in movable type in the 56th year of the Emperor of Qianlong (AD 1791), which was later named "Cheng Jia Edition" by Mr.Shi Hu;Lastly, in the following year, E Gao and Weiyuan Cheng revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi Ben" by Mr.Shi Hu. It is said that there is also "Cheng bing Edition", which is unknown now. According to someone who have seen it, there are few changes compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", so it can be set aside. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

It can be divided into four stages: in the first stage, Cheng Weiyuan collected all kinds of transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (including the manuscripts of a sequel written by unknown authors); Secondly, Gao E continued the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 ones (Cheng Weiyuan may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Cheng Weiyuan in movable type in the 56th year under the reign of the emperor Qianlong (AD 1791), which were later named "Cheng Jia (the first) Editions" by Hu Shi; Lastly, in the following year, Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition" by Hu Shi. It is said that there was also "Cheng Bing (the third) Edition", which now has no whereabouts. According to someone who had once read it, compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", there were so few changes that it could be set aside.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:11, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==
其四是《红楼梦》刊本的流传阶段。此段从程伟元的活字本问世开始，直到现在。在刊本出现后，虽然由于某些人的爱好或习惯，仍有抄本流传，但已是强弩之末，不成气候，而刊本的流传却如燎原之势，席卷全国。

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage has been going on since Cheng Weiyuan's movable printed editions were published. After these versions appeared, though transcripts were still spreading due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 14:22, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage start from cheng Weiyuan's movable type book came out and until now. After the publication appeared, although due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:00, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==
《红楼梦》如此特殊的创作和流传过程，导致了《红楼梦》的“三多”现象：版本多，异文多，讹误多。幸运的是，近几十年来，这些版本不仅不断被发现，而且陆续被影印出版，从而使我们得以大饱眼福。仅就我个人视野所及，即有十二种版本，而且五花八门：或名《石头记》(5种)，或名《红楼梦》(7种)；或为抄本(10种)，或为刊本(2种)；或为八十回系统(8种，其中6种为残本)，或为一百二十回系统(4种)。

The special creation and dissemination process of A Dream of Red Mansions leads to the phenomenon of "three many" : many versions, many different texts and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but photocopied and published, so that we can feast our eyes on them. As far as I can see, there are twelve versions, and they are diverse，named as "The Story of the Stone" (five versions) or "A Dream of Red Mansions" (seven versions). Some are codex (10 kinds) and some are periodical (2 kinds); Some are 80 chapter system (8 types, 6 of which are incomplete) and some are 120 chapter system (4 types).--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:53, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

The special creation and dissemination process of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' led to a phenomenon called "three many": many editions, many variants and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but successively photocopied and published, which greatly regale us. As far as I know, there are twelve editions in great diversity. Some are titled ''The Story of the Stone'' (five editions), or ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (seven editions); some are hand-copied (10 editions), while some printed (8 including 6 incomplete editions); some are composed of 80 chapters, while some others 120 chapters.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 13:17, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==
《红楼梦》的众多版本，对于研究者是极有价值的，它们可以帮助研究者分析《红楼梦》的创作过程和流传过程，并进行比较研究。但对于普通读者来说，如此眼花缭乱的版本，犹如坠入五里雾中，使他们无从选择。因此《红楼梦》的研究者有义务为他们提供一个最好的版本。

The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' have enormous value to researchers. They can be helpful to researchers in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination, and facilitating comparative studies. However, for common readers, such a dazzling array of versions might leave them with a foggy head and unable to decide. Therefore, researchers are obliged to offer the best version. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 06:09, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' are valuable to researchers, which can helpful to them in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination of the book, as well as working on comparative studies. However, it would be confusing and indeterminable for the general readers when facing with such a dazzling array of versions. It’ s therefore incumbent upon researchers to offer the best version.
--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 14:32, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==
况且为了很好地保存这笔珍贵的文化遗产，也必须确立一种《红楼梦》的最好版本。那么哪一种版本是《红楼梦》的最好版本呢？答案就是“程乙本”。鉴于至今仍有“红学家”对高鹗续写的《红楼梦》后四十回既持否定态度，又在出版《红楼梦》时不得不用它与曹雪芹的前八十回相配为完整的一百二十回本，我在这里必须首先对高续后四十回的价值略作说明。

Moreover, in order to preserve this precious cultural heritage, it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. So which is the best version? The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben". Since, when publishing ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', there are still "Redologists" who have a negative attitude towards Gao E 's subsequent writing of the later forty chapters of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', and who had to use Gao‘ s creation in conjunction with Cao Xueqin's first eighty chapters as the complete one—hundred and twenty chapters, I must first give a brief explanation of the value of Gao's continuation of the later forty chapters.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 07:18, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

Moreover，it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' to preserve this precious cultural heritage.So which one is the best version of it？The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben".Since there is still opposition against the forty chapters wrote by Gao E，the “master of the Dream of the Red Chamber，while it is a must to combine them and the eighty chapters wrote by Cao Xueqin to form an integral book which has one hundred and twenty chapters，I must briefly introduce the value of the forty chapters wrote by Gao E--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 08:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==
率先冲破评点派和索隐派而从中国小说发展史的角度客观评价高鹗续书的是胡适先生。他在1921年11月12日定稿的《〈红楼梦〉考证》（见1923年亚东图书馆版《胡适文存》）中说：我们平心而论，高鹗补的四十回，虽然比不上前八十回，也确然有不可埋没的好处。他写司棋之死，写鸳鸯之死，写妙玉的遭遇，写凤姐的死，写袭人的嫁，都是很有精采的小品文字。
The man who first transcend the groups of criticizing and objectively comment the continuation of Gao E from the perspective of the history of the development of Chinese novels is Hu Shi.He said in his 《Test of the Dream of the red mansions》finalised in 1921，12th November that：“To be honest，Gao E’s supplementary forty chapters，though not comparable to the original eighty chapters，still boast their own outstanding merits.For instance，he wrote the death of Si Qi，of Yuan Yang，of Feng Jie，the encounter of Miao Yu and the marriage of Xi Ren，are all excellent facetious words.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 12:08, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

It was Mr. Hu Shi who firstly made a breakthrough between “Pingdian Group” and “Suoying Group” and objectively evaluated Gao E’s continuation from the perspective of Chinese novel’s history. In ''A Textual Research on A Dream of Red Mansions'' finalized on November 12, 1921 (''Hu Shi’s Article Archive'', Yadong Library Edition, 1923), he said, “To be fair, the following forty episodes written by Gao E certainly have undeniable charm although not as good as the previous eighty. He ended Siqi’s life with death, wrote about the death of Yuanyang, the suffering of Miaoyu, Sister Feng’s demise and the marriage of Xiren, all of which are really brilliant sketches. --[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 06:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==
最可注意的是这些人都写作悲剧的下场。还有那最重要的“木石前盟”一件公案，高鹗居然忍心害理的教黛玉病死，教宝玉出家，作一个大悲剧的结束，打破了中国小说的团圆迷信。这一点悲剧的眼光，不能不令人佩服。

It is noteworthy that all these people wrote about tragic endings, expecially th most important case of " Wood and Stone's Previous Oath". In the novel, Gao E auturally had the heart to leave Daiyu to die of illness and Baoyu to become a monk. He made it ended up as a great tragedy and broke the routine of "reunion superstition" in traditional Chinese novels, which could not be more admirable from the tragic perspective.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:00, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

It is most noteworthy that all these characters are created with tragic endings. And as regards the most important case --- "The Pledge in front of Wood and Stone", in the novel, the author Gao E actually ended Mascara Jade Forest's (Lin Daiyu's) life with death resulting from illness and left Precious Jade Merchant (Jia Baoyu) to become a monk. Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' with a tragical epilogue so as to break the superstition that Chinese novels routinely end in happy reunion. In this sense, Gao E's tragic perspective deserves admiration and praise.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==
我们试看高鹗以后，那许多续《红楼梦》和补《红楼梦》的人，那一个不是想把黛玉、晴雯都从棺材里扶出来，重新配给宝玉？那一个不是想做一部“团圆”的《红楼梦》的？我们这里退一步想，就不能不佩服高鹗的补本了。我们不但佩服，还应该感谢他，因为他这部悲剧的补本……居然打倒了后来无数的团圆《红楼梦》，居然替中国保存了一部有悲剧下场的小说！

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Mascars Jade Forest (Lin Daiyu) and Sunny Cloud Formation (Qing Wen), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Precious Jade Merchant (Jia Baoyu). And these writers all had the desire to end the story in a warm reunion. On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 07:35, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Lin Daiyu and Qing Wen (or Sunny Cloud Formation), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Jia Baoyu (or Precious Jade Merchant). Which writer did not want to create "A Dream of the Red mansion" with a reunion ending? On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:33, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==
几乎与胡适同时，俞平伯先生也对高鹗的续书予以专章论述。他在1923年亚东图书馆出版的《红楼梦辨·论续书底不可能》中说：从高鹗以下，百馀年来，续《红楼梦》的人如此之多，但都是失败的……我以为凡书都不能续，不但《红楼梦》不能续；凡续书的人都失败，不但高鹗诸人失败而已。
Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a chapter to the continuation of Gao E's book. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: From Gao E down, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ...... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" can not be renewed; all the people who renewed the book failed, not only Gao E and others failed.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:27, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a comment chapter to the continuation of Gao E. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: Since Gao E, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" is in the case; all the people who renewed books failed, not only Gao E and others did.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==
因此他的结论是：高鹗诸人续写的《红楼梦》都是“狗尾续貂”。俞先生“凡书都不能续”、“凡续书的人都失败”的说法未免武断，至少措辞不够严谨。事实上，成功的续书并非没有，只是不多。

Therefore, his conclusion is: The continuations of "The Dream of Red Mansions" written by the Gao E and others are all "wretched sequels to a masterpiece." Mr. Yu’s statement that “every book cannot be continued” and “everyone who renews a book fails” is a bit too arbitrary, at least the wording is not rigorous enough. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

He therefore concludes that the sequels to Dream of the Red Chamber written by the Gao Ospreys are all "dog tails on a marten", which means a wretched sequels to a masterpiece. Mr. Yu's statement that "all books cannot be renewed" and "all those who renew books will fail" is arbitrary, or at least not carefully worded. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:35, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==
且不说成功的学术著作不乏范例，就是小说作品的续书也有成功的。譬如清代陈忱的《水浒后传》、近代吴趼人的《新石头记》，就都是别开生面之作。不过俞先生毕竟是严肃的学者，尽管他对高鹗的续书很不满意，却对高鹗的功绩予以肯定。

Not to mention that there is no shortage of examples of successful scholarly works, there are also successful sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Not to mention that there is no shortage of successful examples of scholarly works, there are also successes in sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works in new forms. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 09:06, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==
他在《红楼梦辨·后四十回底批评》中说：高鹗以审慎的心思，正当的态度来续《红楼梦》；他宁可失之于拘泥，不敢失之于杜撰。其所以失败：一则因《红楼梦》本非可以续补的书，二则因高鹗与曹雪芹个性相差太远，便不自觉地相违远了。处处去追寻作者，而始终赶他不上，以致迷途；这是他失败时底光景。

He said in the ''Defense of The Dream of Red Mansion: the criticism of the last forty chapters'': “GaoE continued writing The Dream of Red Mansion with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather make it up than adhere to it. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that the book itself is not a book that can be continued writing. The other is GaoE’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’sw which naturally lead to his misconception about this book. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is his background of failure.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 08:11, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He said in the '' Defense of A Dream of Red Mansions: the criticism of the last forty chapters '': “Gao E continued writing '' A Dream of Red Mansions '' with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather rigidly adhere to the content than fabricate some details. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that this novel itself is not the one that can be continued writing. The other is that Gao E’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’s which naturally lead to very distinct characteristics in this novel. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is the reason of his failure.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==
至于混四十回于八十回中，就事论事，是一种过失；就效用影响而论，是一种功德；混合而论是功多罪少。“失败了，光荣地失败了！”是我对于高鹗底赞扬和指斥。俞先生在晚年对高鹗的续书给予更多的肯定，认为高鹗的续书使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧，是一大功劳。

As for adding forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, sticking to the facts, it is actually a demerit. However, it can be a kind of merits and virtues in terms of utility effect. With regarding to several aspects, and his merits can more than wipe out his faults. “Failed, gloriously failed!”It's my praise and rebuke to Gao E. In the later years of Mr. Yu, he gave more recognition to Gao E’sequel, believing that Gao E’ sequel made the fragmentary ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' a complete story which was a great credit.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

As for mixing the forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, actually it is a kind of negligence in terms of facts; in terms of effectiveness and influence, it is a kind of merit; in terms of mixing, it is more meritorious and less sinful. "Failed, failed gloriously!" I praised and reprimanded Gao E. In his later years, Mr. Yu gave more affirmation to Gao E’s sequel, and believed that Gao E’ s sequel made the incomplete ''Dream of Red Mansions'' a great achievement.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 05:16, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==
鲁迅先生也对高鹗的续书予以肯定，只是对书末贾府的“复振”表示遗憾。他在《中国小说史略》（1923、1924年由北京大学新潮社分上下册出版，1925年由北京北新书局合为一册出版）第二十四篇中说：后四十回虽数量止初本之半，而大故迭起，破败死亡相继，与所谓“食尽鸟飞独存白地”者颇符，惟结束又复振。

Lu Xun also gave a approval to the sequel of the book by Gao E, but regretted the “revitalization” part of Merchant’s mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in Chapter 24 of ''Chinese Novel Outline History''(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the latter forty chapters is only half of the original version in quantity, there are great changes, ups and downs, and dilapidated deaths one after another, which is very consistent with the so-called “eating all birds and flying alone in the white land”, but it ends and vibrates again.
--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 09:14, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Lu Xun also affirmed Gao E’s sequel, and just expressed regret for the “revitalization” of Merchant Mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in chapter 24 of Chinese Novel Outline History(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the last forty chapters are only half of the original version in quantity, events occurred constantly and loss and death were in succession, which was quite consistent with the statement “birds ate and flew, then left the bleak place”. But it was a pity that the sequel ended in revitalization. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:58, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==
以上三位权威学者对高鹗续书的评价不尽相同，但有两点共识：高鹗的后四十回逊于曹雪芹的前八十回，但他完成了曹雪芹的未竟之业，使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧；尤其打破了中国传统小说的“团圆迷信”，使《红楼梦》成为中国小说史上首部悲剧小说，这在中国小说发展史上是一个伟大创举。我认为三位先生的这两点共识是客观公正的，是高见卓识。

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering A Dream in Red Mansions perfect. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes A Dream in Red Mansions the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 14:23, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, but sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering the incomplete ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' complete. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' become the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:49, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==
晚近的某些“新红学家”尽管对高鹗大加挞伐，却无法推翻三位先生的这两点共识；最多只能进一步证明高鹗的续书比不上曹雪芹的原作，而不能抹煞高鹗续书的这两大功绩。我们可以设想，如果没有高鹗的续书，只能有两种结果：一是我们只能看到一部残缺不全的《红楼梦》，犹如只能欣赏一只断尾巴的孔雀；二是我们只能看到《红楼复梦》、《红楼圆梦》之类下三流续作，使《红楼梦》跳不出“团圆”小说的窠臼。

Although some recent "new Redologists" criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the consensus of the three gentlemen; at most, they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than erase the two achievements of Gao E's renewal. We can imagine that if we have no Gao E's sequel, there can only be two results: one is that we can only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', like only enjoying a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see ''A Dream of Red Mansions Again'', ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'' and other renewals that are third-classs, which makes ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the mold of "reunion" novel.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:45, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 16:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Although some recent “new Redologists” criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the two consensuses of the three gentlemen; they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than obliterate the two achievements of Gao E's continuation. We can imagine that, without Gao E's sequel, there would be only two results: one is that we could only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', as if we could only appreciate a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see such third-rate sequels like ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' Again, ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'', making ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the set pattern of "reunion" novel. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 06:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==
因此，不仅我们应该感谢高鹗，如果曹雪芹地下有知，也会视高鹗为知己。胡适等三位先生论证了高鹗的两大功绩，就等于完全肯定了完整的一百二十回的《红楼梦》。但完整的《红楼梦》有两种版本，即“程甲本”和“程乙本”，两者的出版时间仅隔一年左右。

Therefore, not only should we be grateful to Gao E, if Cao Xueqin was alive and knew about it, he would also regard Gao E as a confidant. Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated Gao E’s three achievements, which was equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the “Cheng A edition” and “Cheng B edition”, whose publishing interval was only about one year. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated gao e's two great achievements, which is equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the "Cheng Jiabo edition" and "Cheng Yibo edition", which were published only about a year apart.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:17, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==
这两种版本究竟哪一种更好呢？当然是“程乙本”，因为它是高鹗对“程甲本”精心修订的定稿本。程伟元和高鹗在“程乙本”《〈红楼梦〉引言》中说：因急欲公诸同好，故初印时不及细校，间有纰缪。今复聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹。

Which of these two versions is better? Of course, it is "Cheng Yi", because it is gao e to "Cheng Jia" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yi" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:12, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Which version is better? Of course, it is "Cheng Yi", because it is gao e to "Cheng Jia" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yi" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 12:36, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==
惟阅者谅之。这就是说，高鹗续写后四十回并修订曹雪芹的前八十回时，“因急欲公诸同好”，未能像曹雪芹那样“批阅十载，增删五次”，而是匆促而成，在排印过程中又没有仔细校对，以致“纰缪”难免，因而立即加以修订再版，从而产生了“程乙本”。可见“程乙本”是对“程甲本”的“纰缪”加以修订的本子，自然胜于“程甲本”了。

Only those who read it will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, "because he was anxious to be good to the public", he failed to "review for ten years, add and delete five times" as Cao Xueqin did.Hurriedly,he did not proofread carefully in the process of typesetting, so that "mistakes" were inevitable.Therefore, he immediately revised and reprinted it, resulting in "the version of Cheng Yi". It can be seen that "the version of Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "the version of Cheng Jia", which is naturally better than "the version of Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 02:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Only readers will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, he was anxious to share it with the public, so he failed to review for ten years, add and delete five times as Cao Xueqin did.He hurried to finish it, not proofreading carefully in the process of typesetting, so mistakes were inevitable. Therefore, \ he immediately revised and reprinted another verison, resulting in appearing "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition". It can be seen that " Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "Cheng Jia (the first) Edition", which is naturally better than "Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==
然而由于出版商不加细较，以为初刊本更为可靠，以致在相当一段时间内，翻印的“程甲本”曾大行其道。直到1927年，胡适先生因亚东图书馆老板汪元放先生点校并出版过“程甲本”，便将自己珍藏的“程乙本”推荐给汪先生。汪先生便将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以仔细对勘，并加上新式标点，予以出版。

However, the publisher did not go into details, and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the translated and printed “Cheng Jia (the first) Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Cheng Yi (the second) Edition” to the owner of Yadong Library, Mr. Wang Yuanfang after he heard that Mr. Wang had punctuated, proofead and published“Cheng Jia (the first) Edition”. Then Mr. Wang checked against another between “Cheng Jia” and “Cheng Yi” , added the new punctuation and published it.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 03:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

However, the publisher did not proofread carefully and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the printed “Chengjia Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Chengyi Edition” to Mr. Wang Yuanfang who was the owner of Yadong Library because Mr. Wang once proofread and published “Chengjia Edition”. Then Mr. Wang contrasted “Chengjia Edition” with “Chengyi Edition” in detail and decided to add the new-style punctuations to the latter and publish it.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 11:00, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==
胡适先生并为该书写了《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉序》。他在《序》文中说：现在印出的程乙本，就是那“聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹”的本子，可说是高鹗、程伟元合刻的定本。这个改本有许多改订修正之处，胜于程甲本。

Mr.Hushi wrote "A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Edition of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''" for this book. In the preface, he said that the newly-printed Chengyi edition which was revised carefully by referring to all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information in it, was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan. This edition had many corrections so it was better than the Chengjia edition. --[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 08:47, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

Mr.Hushi has written ''A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Version of "''A Dream in Red Mansions''"'' for this book. In this preface, he said that the current printed Chengyi edition was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan which was revised carefully by gathering all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information was in it. This edition had many corrections so it was much better than the Chengjia edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 06:58, 23 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==
但这个本子发行在后，程甲本已有人翻刻了；初本的一些矛盾错误仍旧留在现行各本里，虽经各家批注里指出，终没有人敢改正。胡适先生并举了三个例子，以证明“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”。由此可知，胡适先生不仅是第一个发现并公开指出“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”的人，而且推荐并贡献出了自己珍藏的“程乙本”初刊本，为“程乙本”后来的广泛流行起了决定性的作用。

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors from the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters has pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, which played a decisive role in the wide popularity of this edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 00:55, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors of the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters had pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, but no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, and that played a decisive role in the wide popularity of its edition.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 06:19, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==
汪原放先生也没有辜负胡适先生的重托，不仅出版了“程乙本”，而且对两个“程本”加以仔细对勘，并用增删改动文字的统计数字与具体例子（详见下文），进一步证明了“程乙本”优于“程甲本”。由于胡适先生的学术威望和汪原放先生点校的“程乙本”面世，尤其是“程乙本”确实胜于“程甲本”，故此后书商大多舍弃了“程甲本”，竞相刊印“程乙本”，“程乙本”几乎一统天下。这种局面一直持续到上世纪五六十年代。

Mr.Wang Yuanfang also lived up to the great trust of Mr.Hu Shi. He not only published "Cheng Yiben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Yiben", and changed the statistics and specific examples (see below for details), further proving that "Cheng Yiben" was better than "Cheng Jiaben". Because Mr.Hu Shi's academic prestige and Mr.Wang Yuanfang's "Cheng Yiben" were published, especially "Cheng Yiben" was indeed better than "Cheng Jiaben", so most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jiaben" and competed to print "Cheng Yiben", " Cheng Yiben " almost unified the whole world. The situation has been continuing until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:48, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Mr. Wang Yuanfang also lived up to Mr. Hu Shi's great trust. He not only published "Cheng Yi Ben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Ben", and further proved that "Cheng Yi Ben" was better than "Cheng Jia Ben" with statistics and specific examples of adding, deleting and changing words (see below for details). Due to the academic prestige of Mr. Hu Shi and the appearance of "Cheng Yi Ben" ordered by Mr. Wang Yuanfang, especially "Cheng Yi Ben" is indeed better than "Cheng Jia Ben", most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jia Ben" and competed to publish "Cheng Yi Ben" and "Cheng Yi Ben" almost dominates the world. This situation lasted until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 13:31, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==
然而到了八十年代以后，“程乙本”一统天下的局面却被打破了，各种版本的《红楼梦》纷纷涌现，其中多为拼凑本，即前八十回采用抄本，后四十回则多采用高鹗作废了的“程甲本”，从而造成了《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象。这种混乱现象使本来已经解决了的《红楼梦》版本问题又重新出现纷争，也使普通读者陷入了不知如何选择《红楼梦》的境地。
However, after the 1980s, the situation of "Cheng Yi Ben" dominating the world was broken, and various versions of a dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were piecemeal copies, that is, the transcripts of the first 80 chapters were used, and the "Cheng Jia Ben" cancelled by Gao e was used in the last 40 chapters, resulting in the confusion of the version of a dream of Red Mansions. This chaotic phenomenon makes the original version of a dream of Red Mansions once again controversial, and makes ordinary readers fall into the situation of not knowing how to choose a dream of Red Mansions.

However, after the 1980s, the dominating situation of "Cheng Yi version"was broken, and various versions of The Dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were cobbled together, where the first eighty editions used the codified version, while the last forty editions mostly used Gao E's cancelled Cheng Jia version, thus causing confusion in the version of a Dream of Red Mansions.This kind of confusion makes the issue of the edition of a Dream of Red Mansions reappear, and also makes ordinary readers have no idea how to choose a Dream of Red Mansions.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:27, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==
钱锺书先生虽然不研究《红楼梦》，但对《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象却很不以为然。他在上世纪九十年代说过（大意）：《红楼梦》研究中的许多纠葛与纷争，大多源于版本问题。在同一问题上，张三根据这个版本，李四根据那个版本，公说公有理，婆说婆有理，一万年也说不清，实在无谓得很。

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considers that the phenomenon of mess versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (roughly meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:23, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considered disapprovingly that the phenomenon of chaos versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (a rough meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 06:47, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==
这是《红楼梦》的悲剧，也是中国学界的悲剧。为了永久保存《红楼梦》这笔珍贵遗产，也为了给广大读者提供一个《红楼梦》的范本，必须从众多版本中确定一个最好的版本，而这个版本就是胡适先生推荐的“程乙本”。至于其他版本，则只供研究之用。

This is not only the tragedy of The Dream of the Red Chamber , but also the tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of The Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of The Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:00, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

This is not only a tragedy of Dream of the Red Chamber , but also a tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 11:15, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==
我完全赞成以上诸位先生的看法，毋须我再费笔墨，所以我在这里只是为他们的看法提供一些实例。首先，“程乙本”的前八十回由于经过了高鹗(也许还有程伟元)的大量修订，较之诸抄本大有改观，使之更加完善。具体来说，就是对众多异文加以筛选，去除讹误，择善而从，并加以必要的补阙、修改、删节和增饰。

I totally agree with the views of the above teachers, so I don't need to say more, so I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eighty books of "Cheng Yi version" have been revised extensively by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is a great improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it is the screening of many different texts, the removal of errors, the selection of good, and the necessary additions, modifications, abridgments and additions.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 10:56, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

I totally agree with the opinions of you all, so I don't bother to say more. So I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eightith chapters of "Cheng Yi's version" have been revised for many times by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is an improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it made a selection from many different texts, corrected errors, selected the good, and offered the necessary additions, modifications, removal and polishment.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 07:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==
试举六例如下：例一：原作第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目。高鹗将那套合用的回目归第十七回，而为第十八、十九两回补拟了回目。例二：原作第十八回写元妃省亲回府，“只见园中香烟缭绕，花彩缤纷，处处灯光相映，时时细乐声喧，说不尽太平景象，富贵风流”，下面却接着有这样一段：此时自己回想当初在大荒山中青埂峰下，那等凄凉寂寞。

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have have any. Gao-E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have any. Gao'E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==
若不亏癞僧、跛道二人携来到此，又安能得见这般世面？本欲作一篇《灯月赋》、《省亲颂》，以志今日之事，但又恐入了别书的俗套。按此时之景，即作一赋一赞，也不能得尽其妙；即不作赋、赞，其豪华富丽，观者诸公亦可想而知矣。

If the Monk and the Taoist don't bring me here, how could I can see such elephant. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. The scene of this period, we can't get its wonderful in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxurious richly.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:26, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If not the monk with scappy head and the lame Taoist priest bring me here, how could I can see such the world like this. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. In the scene of this period, we can't get the wonderfulness in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxury and richness.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 02:18, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==
所以倒是省了这工夫纸墨，且说正经的为是。本书前面已经交代得明明白白，大荒山青埂峰下的那块石头被一僧一道携入红尘后已幻化为口衔通灵宝玉的贾宝玉，而从这段话看，那块石头的化身却是贾元春，难道姐弟二人都是那块石头所化吗？如果说这段话的前大半截是写贾宝玉的心理活动，误安在了贾元春的头上，也还是说不通，因为不可能在描写贾元春省亲观感的文字当中无缘无故插入一段对贾宝玉的心理描写。

Therefore the time to write them is saved, and it is time to talk something serious. It has been clearly explained in the front of this book that the stone under the Loveroot Peak of the Great Wilderness Mountain has been transformed into Precious Jade Merchant with psychic jade in his mouth after being brought into the world by a monk and a Taoist priest. From this paragraph, however, the incarnation of that stone is First Spring Merchant. Are both the sister and brother transformed by that stone? If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, and is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense. Because it is impossible to insert a psychological description of Precious Jade Merchant into the words describing First Spring Merchant's feelings about relatives for no reason.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 10:16, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, which is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense.
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 10:13, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==
尤为荒唐的是，从“观者诸公”以下文字，又突然变为作者的第三人称口气，更令人丈二金刚，摸不着头脑。如此语无伦次的拙劣文字，决非曹雪芹的原文，而是抄书者的误抄或窜文。“程乙本”将其全部删除，犹如割除了一个赘瘤，使行文变得合理而又通畅。

What is particularly absurd is that, from the following words "all the audience", and suddenly into the third person tone of the author,which is even more puzzling. Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yi version" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 12:58, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin Autor's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yi version" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 14:50, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==
例三：原作第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，目的在于通过各人制作的灯谜，以暗示各自的性情、志向及将来结局，是全书的重要段落。大约因曹雪芹当时没有完全想好，故只写了贾母、贾政、元春、迎春、探春、惜春、宝钗的灯谜，而将宝玉、黛玉、湘云的灯谜暂缺，留待以后补写，不料曹雪芹突然去世，未及补写，致使原稿残缺。高鹗大胆地将原作宝钗的灯谜移作黛玉的灯谜，又增写了宝钗和宝玉的灯谜，我以为移得合理，增作也很精彩。

Example 3: the 22nd episode of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Jung-guo-Anwesen ，The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future outcome through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important paragraph of the whole book. It may be that Cao Xueqin Autor didn't think well at that time, so he only wrote the riddles of Grandma Merchant, Master Merchant, First Spring Merchant, Spring Pleasure Merchant, Seeking-Spring Merchant, Cherishing Spring Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, but didn't write the riddles of Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin Autor died suddenly and didn't have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass into that of Mascara Jade Forest, and added the lantern riddles of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass and Precious Jade Merchant. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 01:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example 3: the 22nd chapter of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Rong Mansion, The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future respectively through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important plot of the whole work.
Possibly because Cao Xueqin did not think well at that time, he only wrote the riddles of Grandma Merchant, Master Merchant, First Spring Merchant, Spring Pleasure Merchant, Seeking-Spring Merchant, Cherishing Spring Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, but didn’t write the riddles of Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin died suddenly and didn’t have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass into that of Mascara Jade Forest, and added the lantern riddles of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass and Precious Jade Merchant. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:58, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==
但高鹗也有失误和疏漏：失误在于删掉或漏掉了原作惜春的灯谜，疏漏在于未给湘云补写灯谜。惜春的灯谜我已补入第二十二回（参见该回原文及其注释），以弥补高鹗的失误；而湘云的灯谜却只好仍阙，成为永远的遗憾。例四：原作第二十五回在写王熙凤被魇魔法弄得精神错乱时，插入一段对薛蟠的描写：别人慌张自不必讲，独有薛蟠更比诸人忙到十分：又恐薛姨妈被人挤倒，又恐薛宝钗被人瞧见，又恐香菱被人臊皮──知道贾珍等是在女人身上做功夫的，因此忙的不堪。

However, Gao E also made some mistakes and omissions: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Cherishing Spring Merchant, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Fragrant-cloud History. I have added the riddle of Spring-cherish Merchant in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But the lantern riddles of Fragrant-cloud History have yet to be unfilled, which becomes a permanent regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Splendid Phoenix King being deranged by magic, a description of Dragon Marshgrass is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Dragon Marshgrass was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass stared at, or Wiselotus Potterymaker exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Treasure Merchant and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

However, Gao E also made a mistake and had an oversight: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Cherishing Spring Merchant, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Fragrant-cloud History. I already added the riddle of Spring-cherish Merchant in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But Fragrant-cloud History’s lantern riddles have yet to be unfilled, which becomes an eternal regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Splendid Phoenix King being deranged by magic, a description of Dragon Marshgrass is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Dragon Marshgrass was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass stared at, or Wiselotus Potterymaker exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Treasure Merchant and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:51, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==
忽一眼瞥见了林黛玉风流婉转，已酥倒在那里。这段话十分荒谬：其一，贾、薛两家为近亲，贾珍与薛宝钗是表兄妹，贾珍怎么敢对表妹起歹心呢？薛蟠岂非杞人忧天？其二，薛蟠虽然混账，与林黛玉也是表兄妹，况且见面的机会很多，薛蟠怎么会“一眼瞥见了林黛玉”就“酥倒在那里”呢？

Dragon Marshgrass's eye suddenly falling on Mascara Jade Forest, he was so enchanted by her charms that he almost melted on the spot. This paragraph is very absurd: First, Family Merchant and Family Marshgrass are close relatives, and Treasure Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass are cousins. How dare Treasure Merchant want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Dragon Marshgrass entertained imaginary and groundless fear? Second, although Dragon Marshgrass is a jerk, Mascara Jade Forest is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Mascara Jade. How could Dragon Marshgrass“almost melted on the spot when his eye suddenly fell on Mascara Jade Forest”? --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 09:44, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Dragon Marshgrass suddenly caught a glimpse of Mascara Jade Forest, who was pretty and gentle, and collapsed there. This paragraph is very absurd: Firstly, Family Merchant and Family Marshgrass are close relatives, and Treasure Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass are cousins. How dare Treasure Merchant want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Dragon Marshgrass alarmist? Secondly, although Dragon Marshgrass is a jerk, Mascara Jade Forest is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Mascara Jade. How could Dragon Marshgrass “collapsed there because of a glimpse of Mascara Jade Forest”?--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:15, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==
而脂批竟称赞道：“忙中写闲，真大手眼、大手笔。”这如果不是偶然失误，便只能说是不识好歹了。“程乙本”将其删除，倒可当得起“大手眼、大手笔”的评语。例五：原作第六十三回中用了一千多字的篇幅，大写贾宝玉、史湘云等人只是为了好玩，如何将芳官、葵官打扮成“小土番儿”，如何改称“犬戎名姓”。

However, the Zhi Yanzhai's critiques unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really big eyes and a big deal." If this is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. If "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, it can be regarded as a comment of "big eyes and a big deal". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to capitalize the name of Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others, which is just for fun, and to describe how to dress Fragrant Official and Sunflower as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how to change "the surname and name of Quan Rong".--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:21, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

However, critiques of Zhi Yanzhai(one of the earliest critics of "A Dream in Red Mansions" ) unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really weighty." If it is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, thus it can be regarded as the comment of "weighty writings". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to describe that how Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others dress Fang Guan and Kui Guan as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how they change "the name of Quan Rong" just for fun.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 06:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==
而且竟然让贾宝玉说出这样的话来：如今四海宾服，八方宁静，千载百载，不用武备。咱们虽一戏一笑，也该称颂，方不负坐享升平了。这种描写既十分无聊，又与贾宝玉的性格背道而驰，尤其侮辱了包括满族在内的少数民族，真可谓拙劣的文字，因此“程乙本”完全予以删除是绝对必要的。

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Precious Jade Merchant said that"Nowadays, people within Four Seas were all submitted and social stability was achieved in all directions. Weapons were not needed in nearly thousands of years. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." This kind of descriptions were very boring and ran counter to the characteristics of Jia Baoyu, and they particularly insulted national minorities including Manchu, which were really bad writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for "Cheng Yi's version" to delete these words.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 07:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Baoyu even said things like this:"Nowadays, people from all over the world bow to our emperor, and social stability's greatly achieved. No military preparation's needed in the days ahead. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." Such descriptions are boring and against Baoyu's characteristic, and also insulted national minorities including Manchu, which are truly awful writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for Cheng&Gao's second version to delete these words.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 06:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==
例六：原作第六十一回开头有一段写柳家的与小厮斗嘴的文字，既毫无意义，又有“几根×毛”、“×声浪嗓”的粗话，故“程乙本”删掉了百馀字也完全正确。像这样的例子不胜枚举，它们足可以证明，高鹗对前八十回的修订是完全必要和合理的，“程乙本”前八十回优于原作的事实是任何人也难以抹煞的。其次，再就两种“程本”而言，由于“程乙本”是“程甲本”的修订本，自然也就更加完善。

Example six: The descriptive words about the argument between Liu's and his servant in the chapter sixty one of the original version are quite meaningless, and vulgarism like "some x hairs","some nasty voices" are also included at the same time，that's why the Cheng&Gao's second version had correctly deleted hundreds of words of the original one. Such examples are numerous and are solid proofs to the necessity and justifiability of Gao E's revision of original former eighty chapters, and it's also undeniable that former eighty chapters in the Cheng&Gao's second version are better than ones in the original. Moreover, in terms of the two versions of Cheng&Gao's, the second version is obviously more perfect for it's revised on the base of the first one.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 05:33, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example six: the original 61st back at the beginning of a paragraph to write the fighting words by Liu and his following boy, not only meaningless, but also "a few pubic hair", "obscene voice" of foul language, so "Cheng B book "deleted a few hundred words is also completely correct. Such examples are numerous, and they are sufficient to prove that the revision of the first eighty chapters by Gao Hu is completely necessary and reasonable, and the fact that the first eighty chapters of "Cheng B book" is better than the original is hard to be denied by anyone. Secondly, in terms of the two "Cheng books", since the "Cheng B book" is a revised version of the "Cheng A book", it is naturally more perfect.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:37, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==
关于这一点，最有力的证据是一组现成的统计数字。前面说过，汪原放先生于1927年曾将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以对勘，并将两者的异文作了统计，其结果是：“程乙本”较之“程甲本”改动(包括增与改)了总共21506字，其中前八十回改动15537字，后四十回改动5969字。(见汪原放《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉校读后记》)这些改动主要有三个方面：其一，是对“程甲本”中的“纰缪”文字加以改正。

About this point, the strongest evidence is a set of readily available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book" changes (including increase and change) a total of 21506 words, including the first eighty chapters changed 15537 words, the last forty chapters changed 5969 words. (See Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the "Cheng A book" in the "error" text to correct.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:38, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

The strongest evidence for this is a set of available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: a total of 21506 words (including complements and modifications) were changed in "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book", including 15537 words changed in the first eighty chapters, and 5969 words changed in the last forty chapters. (Refer to Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the modification of the "error" text in Cheng A book.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:03, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==
如第二回“冷子兴演说荣国府”中，“程甲本”对原作的如下一段文字未作改动：这政老爷的夫人王氏……第二胎生了一位小姐，生在大年初一，就奇了。不想次年又生了一位公子，说来更奇：一落胞胎，嘴里便衔下一块五彩晶莹的玉来，还有许多字迹。这位“小姐”就是贾元春(元妃)，这位“公子”就是贾宝玉。

For example, the "Leng Zixing's speech in Rong Mansion" in chapter 2, "Cheng Jia's translation version" did not change the following text of the original work: The wife of Lord Zheng Mrs Wang…… gave birth to a girl on the first day of the lunar year,which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the next year: he was born with a colorful and crystal jade in his mouth, and the jade was written by some scripts. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For example, in the "Son Happy Cold's speech in Glory Mansion" from chapter 2, the following text of the original work remained intact in "Cheng Jia(the first)edition": Lady King, the wife of Master Merchant …… gave birth to her second child, a girl, on the first day of the lunar year, which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the following year: when he was born, a colorful and crystal jade with many scripts on it was in his mouth. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 10:39, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==
而这段文字显然与第十八回中的一段文字相矛盾：那宝玉未入学之先，三四岁时，已得元妃口传，教授了几本书，识了数千字在腹中：虽为姊弟，有如母子。
“有如母子”的贾元春和贾宝玉，不可能只差一岁，可见第二回那段文字有明显的“纰缪”。“程乙本”将“次年”改为“隔了十几年”，便合情合理了。

This paragraph obviously contradicts with the description in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade,at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had known thousands of words in his mind. They are sister and brother in blood relation, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant, "like mother and son",could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake"in the paragraph from the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:28, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

While this paragraph obviously contradicts with one in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade, at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had learned thousands of words in his mind. They are elder sister and younger brother, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake" in the paragraph of the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 01:53, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==
其二，是将文言词语尽量改为白话或俗语，从而使《红楼梦》的语言更为通俗易懂。譬如：“若”改为“要”，“与”改为“给”，“亦”改为“也”，“此”改为“这”，“口”改为“嘴”，“何”改为“为什么”，“如何”改为“怎么”，“如此”改为“这么着”，“葳蕤”改为“委琐”，等等。其三，是增加了许多“儿”字，将词语加以“儿”化，从而使《红楼梦》语言的京味特点更加突出。

Secondly, classical words were changed into vernacular or colloquial language as far as possible so as to make the language of A Dream of Red Mansions more understandable. For instance: "ruo" was translated into "yao"(if), "yu" into "yao"(to), "yi" into "ye"(also), "ci" into "zhe"(this), "kou" into "zui"(mouth),"he" into "wei shen me"(why), "ru he" into "zen me"(how), "ru ci" into "zhe me zhao"(in this way), "weisui" into "weisuo"(obscene) and so on. Thirdly, lots of "er" were added into A Dream of Red Mansions, so that the Beijing flavor of the language in A Dream of Red Mansions is more distinct.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==
关于这一点，几乎随处可见，因而不再举例。《红楼梦》是一部近百万字的巨著，要想完全揭示“程乙本”的版本优点，只能将它与其他版本一一对勘，并将异文一一列出。单凭以上的简单说明，只能是挂一漏万。

This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I will not give examples. “Dream of the Red Chamber” is a masterpiece of nearly one million words. If we want to fully reveal the merits of "Cheng Yi's translation version", we can only investigate it with other translation versions and list the differences one by one. The above simple explanation is still incomplete and full of omissions.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 07:24, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I don't want to give an example.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:25, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==
不过我可以向读者负责地保证：如果你是出于欣赏的目的阅读《红楼梦》，那么选择“程乙本”将是最明智的。三、校勘问题我们说“程乙本”为《红楼梦》的最佳版本，并不是说它完美无缺，也不是说其他版本一概不如“程乙本”，只是说它在总体上更胜一筹而已。
But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading a Dream of Red Mansions for enjoyment, cheng Yiben is the wisest choice. To say that Cheng Yiben is the best version of a Dream of Red Mansions does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yiben, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:23, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' for enjoyment, Cheng Yi version is the wisest choice. Three: Revision. To say that Cheng Yi version is the best version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yi version, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 13:42, 16 November 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==
事实上，或因高鹗和程伟元的疏忽，或因排字工人的失误，致使“程乙本”仍存在不少“纰缪”。譬如：第八十六回说贾元春生于“甲申年正月丙寅”；至第九十五回则说：“是年甲寅年十二月十八日立春，元妃薨日是十二月十九日，已交卯年寅月，存年四十三岁。”“程甲本”和“程乙本”都是如此。

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that Jia Yuanchun was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day consort Yuan died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 14:17, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that First Spring Merchant was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day Princess Merchant died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==
而实际上前后存在明显矛盾：甲申年至甲寅年是三十年，按照当时以虚岁计算年龄的习惯，元妃享年应是三十一岁；即使因元妃薨于立春次日，算作乙卯年，也只有三十二岁。无论如何也不会是四十三岁。可见“程甲本”已错，而“程乙本”也没有订正。

In fact,there is clear contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Merchant would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Merchant took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year yi Mao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised.

In fact,there is an obvious contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Yuan would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Yuan took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year YiMao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised either.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 06:37, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==
这个明显的失误，早在1927年由汪原放校点、亚东图书馆出版的“程乙本”《红楼梦》已经改正，而上世纪八十年代以后出版的诸多号称经过了“精校”的“程甲本”和“程乙本”《红楼梦》，包括那些拼凑本，却依旧保留了这个失误，这不能不说是一种讽刺。其实“程乙本”的其他文字失误还有不少，并非像高鹗、程伟元所说“改订无讹”。“程乙本”既非十全十美，而我们要供献于读者的是一部普及本的《红楼梦》，因此有必要汲取其他版本的长处，使其尽量完美。

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yi Version" （a version of "A Dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jia Version" and "Cheng Yi Version" published after the 1980s, including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yi Version", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yi Version" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a popular version of “A Dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 14:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yiben" （a version of "a dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong Library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jiaben" and "Cheng Yiben", which claimed carefully checked and published after the 1980s , including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yiben", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yiben" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a widespread version of “a dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==
为此，本书以“程乙本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为底本，以“程甲本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为主校本，并以下列版本为参校本：汪原放校勘“程乙本”(上海亚东图书馆刊本)、王希廉(雪香)评“程甲本”(清道光十二年刊本)、“梦稿本”“庚辰本”“己卯本”“甲戌本”(后四种均为上海古籍出版社影印本)。在以上八种版本中，前五种均为一百二十回全本，后三种均为前八十回的残存本。

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s “Cheng Jiaben” commentary(edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as the master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as the main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation of “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s comments on “Cheng Jiaben” (edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 05:57, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==
我的校勘总原则是：既要尽量保持底本的原貌，又要保证全书的质量。具体来说则遵循以下几条：（一）底本与校本之间虽有异文，但底本基本可通者，即使校本文字更好，也不作改动。（二）底本中的各种错误(包括内容与文字的错误)、文字倒置、文理不通等，尽量用校本改正，若校本同样错误则径改。

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and garantee the quality through the book. Specifically, abiding by the following advice: One, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth remains untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Two: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text），the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, then it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 12:43, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and guarantee the book’s quality. To be more specific, following these advices: First, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth should be untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Second: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text), like the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 06:46, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==
（三）底本和校本中的僻字、怪字、俗字，本来并无特别意义，毫无保留价值，只能为读者增加阅读障碍，因此径改为通用字。如“揌”和“”改为“塞”，“嘴”改为“努嘴”，“椅子”改为“拿椅子”，等等。（四）古人对别字多不在乎，故底本和校本中屡见不鲜，但在当今的读者看来却十分别扭，甚至可能被误解，因而酌情径改。

Three, the rare words, strange words, common words in the master copy and in the checked copy had no special meaning, and no reservation value, can only increase the reading barrier for readers. So they need to be changed to universal words. Such as "揌" changed to “塞", "嘴" changed to "努嘴", "椅子" changed to "拿椅子", etc. Four, the ancients didn’t care about the wrongly written characters, so it is common in the master copy and the checked copy. They seem very awkward for today's readers and may even be misunderstood. Therefore they should be appropriately modified.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 14:12, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

（3）Some characters in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy, which are not commonly used, or look strange, or are popular but irregular, have no special significance and no reserved value, only increasing the reading barrier for readers. Therefore, these characters are changed to universal characters. For example, "揌" are changed to "塞", "嘴" is changed to "努嘴", "椅子" is changed to "拿椅子" and so on.（4） The ancients didn't care much about the wrongly written characters, so they can be commonly seen in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy. However, when seeing these characters, today’s readers may feel awkward, and may even misunderstand their meanings. Thus they are supposed to be changed for appropriateness.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:37, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==
如“必真”改为“逼真”，“奈烦”改为“耐烦”，“悔气”改为“晦气”，“渥”改为“焐”，“握”改为“捂”，等等。（五）有些字在古代汉语中可以通用（借用），在现代汉语中却严加区分。《红楼梦》也存在大量借用字，如果一一加以改动，不一定合适。

For example, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气", "渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂" and so on. Some words can be commonly used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, While in modern Chinese they are strictly distinguished. There are also a large number of loanwords in the A Dream of Red Mansions, which may not be appropriate if changed one by one.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:06, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

For instance, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气","渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂", etc. Wait. Some characters can be used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, but they are strictly distinguished in modern Chinese. There are also a lot of borrowed words in "A Dream of Red Mansions". If you change them one by one, it may not be appropriate.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 11:44, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==
因此只有在以下两种情况之下才作改动：一是可能引起误解；二是同一词语而用字不同。如等同于数字“一”的“么”，极易与“什么”、“怎么”的“么”相混，故改为“幺”。又如表示时间的“一会”和“一回”混用，“一会儿”和“一回儿”混用，统一为“一会”和“一会儿”；表示位置的“旁”和“傍”混用，“旁边”和“傍边”混用，统一为“旁”和“旁边”；“赔礼”和“陪礼”混用，“赔罪”和“陪罪”混用，统一为“赔礼”和“赔罪”；等等。

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase but different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, unified into "一会" and "一会儿";"旁" and "傍" to indicate position are mixed together, "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , Unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"; and so on.

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase formed by different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and in case that "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, they are unified into "一会" and "一会儿"respectively ;"旁" and "傍" to indicating position are mixed together,and "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, so they are unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , so they are unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"etc.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 09:49, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==
（六）本书采用简化汉字，为异体字的处理提供了方便，故一律按照简化汉字的规定处理。任何语言都在不断发展变化，故古今汉语有很大不同，以至于定字工作成为古籍整理中最为复杂的问题之一，很难做到尽善尽美。仅根据以上几条，只能是有助于减少读者的阅读障碍罢了。

(Six) Simplified Chinese characters are used in this book to provide convenience for the processing of variant characters. Therefore, they are processed in accordance with the provisions of simplified Chinese characters . Any language is constantly changing, so ancient and modern Chinese is very different. Therefore, deciding which word to use has become one of the most complex problems in the collection of ancient books, which is difficult to be perfect. Just according to the above, it can only help reduce the difficulties in their reading.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 13:59, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==
为了节省篇幅，一律不出校文。四、注释问题 “注释”亦称“注解”，最初是由于经书文字艰涩难懂，故对经书的字句加以解释；如果注文仍旧难懂或未尽其义，再对注文加以解释，则称“疏”。注文和疏文合称则谓之“注疏”。

In order to save space, no proofreading will be published. 4、 Annotation question "Annotation" is also called "Annotation".At first, the words in the Scriptures were difficult to understand,therefore, explain the words and sentences in the scriptures; If the annotation is still difficult to understand or does not fulfill its meaning, and then explain the annotation, it is called "sparse"--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 09:11, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlì 日语语言文学女 202120081562==
后来逐步扩大范围，对一切文献中的疑难字句加以解释，均称之为“注释”。由于中国历史悠久，古今汉语及名物变化巨大，致使后人读古籍的困难越来越大，因此对古籍的注释也就显得越来越有必要。《红楼梦》虽是一部旧白话小说，但它汲取了诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔等各种精华，又涉及谜语、酒令、建筑、服饰、珍禽异兽、奇花异卉、神话传说、名人秀女、琴棋书画、医卜星相、风俗礼仪等多种知识，白话文言间用，成语典故成堆。

Later, the scope was gradually expanded to explain the difficult words and sentences in all documents, which were called "notes". Due to China's long history and great changes in ancient and modern Chinese ,which makes it more and more difficult for future generations to read ancient books. Therefore, it is more and more necessary to annotate ancient books. Although 《The Dream of Red Mansion》 is an old vernacular novel,but it has absorbed all kinds of essences such as poetry, CI, Qu, Fu, song, and so on.It also involves riddles, wine orders, architecture, clothing, rare birds and animals, exotic flowers
Myths and Myths and legends, celebrities and beauties, Qin, chess, calligraphy and painting, medical divination of stars, customs and etiquette and other knowledge are used between vernacular and Idioms and allusions pile up.

==Nadia 202011080004==
对于一般读者来说，所有这些都可能是阅读中的绊脚石。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==
本注释的使命就是为读者清除这些绊脚石，使阅读畅通无阻。

This annotation is meant to remove the barriers in reading and make it easier to read.

==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==
因此凡是我认为可能影响读者阅读的地方，便予以注释，决不假装视而不见，决不避难就易。

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==
为了节省篇幅，我仅举一例。第五十六回“敏探春兴利除宿弊，贤宝钗小惠全大体”中，有贾探春与薛宝钗谈论经济的一段话：
In order to save space, I will give just one example. In the fifty-sixth chapter, "Min Tanchun prospering the benefits and eliminating the disadvantages, Xian Baochai and Xiaohui are all in general", there is a passage between Jia Tanchun and Xue Baochai discussing the economy:

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==
宝钗笑道：“真真膏粱纨袴之谈。你们虽是千金，原不知道这些事。
Baochai smiled and said: "It's really tempting to talk about it. Although you--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:09, 6 November 2021 (UTC) are a daughter, you don't know these things.

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==
但只你们也都念过书，识过字的，竟没看见过朱夫子有一篇《不自弃文》么？”
But if you have all studied and read, haven't you seen Master Zhu's article "Don't Abandon Oneself"?

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==
探春笑道：“虽也看过，不过是勉人自励，虚比浮词，那里真是有的？”
Tanchun said and smile, "Although I have seen it, it's just a matter of encouraging others to encourage themselves. It's a meaningless word. Is there really something happen?"

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==
宝钗道：“朱子都行了虚比浮词了？那句句都是有的。

==Öncü 202121080008==
你才办了两天事，就利欲熏心，把朱子都看虚浮了。
You have been working on it for two days only, and blinded by greed, you have made ZhuZi look vain.--[[User:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU]] ([[User talk:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|talk]]) 16:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

You have only been doing things for two days, then you desire for money and profit fascinated the heart, and you think Zhu Zi is Unrealistic. --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 09:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Akira Jantarat

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==
你再出去，见了那些利弊大事，越发连孔子也都看虚了呢！”

If you go to a larger world and see greater benefits or disadvantages, I am afraid you will be a little bit down on what Kongzi said.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 14:19, 6 November 2021 (UTC)Akira

If you go out again and see the pros and cons of major events, you will be even more deceptive!--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:50, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==
探春笑道：“你这样一个通人，竟没看见《姬子》书？

Tan-tschun Smiled and said "you are such a familiar person, but have you read the "Ji Zi" book?--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:41, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Tan-tschun smiled and said: "You are such a familiar person, but haven't you read the book "Ji Zi"? --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw -Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==
当日《姬子》有云：‘登利禄之场，处运筹之界者，穷尧舜之词，背孔孟之道。’”

On that day, "Jizi" said: ‘The field of Deng Lilu, those who are in the realm of management, are poor in the words of Yao and Shun, and recite the way of Confucius and Mencius. ’"
--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)EI MON KYAW
-EI MON KYAW-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

There was a saying in ''Himeko'' that day: "Deng LiLu, and those who operate in this realm, steal the words of Yao and Shun, and memorize Confucianism."--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:38, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==
宝钗笑道：“底下三句呢？”探春笑道：“如今断章取义，念出底下一句，我自己骂我自己不成？”

Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now that I have read the next sentence out of context, can I blame myself for failing?"--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Translation: Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now I take the next sentence out of context, and if I read the next sentence out of context, I can't blame myself?"--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 11:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==
在这段话中，提到了朱熹的《不自弃文》，还有《姬子》一书。

Translation: In this passage, Zhu Xi's "don't abandoned the text--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)" and the book "Ji Zi" are mentioned.

==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==
我所看到的几个《红楼梦》注本，对《不自弃文》有所注释，而对《姬子》却避而不注。

I have read different annotations of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', in which there are some explaination to ''No Self-surrender'' while no notes to ''Jizi''.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 08:21, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

20211229 homework

2021-12-29T06:30:40Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491 */

20211229 homework

2021-12-29T06:29:24Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491 */

20211229 homework

2021-12-29T06:22:24Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-22T14:22:34Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-22T14:18:22Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-22T14:17:36Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492 */

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-16T19:49:43Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* References */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (Wang Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is(are corrected by--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:17, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In this paragraphy,I think the author could introduce some opinions of other representative personages such as Lefevere.(corrected by --[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:17, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

==== Research Objective and Significance====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. According to Bassnett, translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better. As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture. As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference. Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.(Zeng Wenxiong,2006:45)

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:23) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:15) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:26) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:16)

I think the author could note in which books these characters are writing their ideas.(corrected by--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:22, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, Wang Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(Sun Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. Xie has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(Xie Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48) Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48)Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:54) While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou
Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .
Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100) In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival
On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?
The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:63) Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.
Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .
Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156) This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:34)

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. (Hervey & Higgins,1992:12)The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month
For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .
Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98) And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. (Liu Xiaoying,2013:24)Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Bassnnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:62)The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

From this conclusion, except the positive effects, what are the negative effects of cultural turn for the translation of poems and il's a shock to local cuture？(corrected by --[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Bassnett, Susan.(2002)Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere.(1990)Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

Bassnett, Susan,(2001)Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M.(2004)Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

Xu Tingting徐婷婷.(2021) 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2007)苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Changsha:Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

Liu Xiaoying刘小影.(2013)文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.(2012)创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.(2006)翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.(2006)对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.(2006)“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-16T19:48:22Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* References */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (Wang Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is(are corrected by--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:17, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In this paragraphy,I think the author could introduce some opinions of other representative personages such as Lefevere.(corrected by --[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:17, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

==== Research Objective and Significance====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. According to Bassnett, translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better. As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture. As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference. Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.(Zeng Wenxiong,2006:45)

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:23) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:15) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:26) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:16)

I think the author could note in which books these characters are writing their ideas.(corrected by--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:22, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, Wang Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(Sun Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. Xie has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(Xie Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48) Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48)Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:54) While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou
Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .
Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100) In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival
On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?
The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:63) Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.
Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .
Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156) This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:34)

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. (Hervey & Higgins,1992:12)The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month
For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .
Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98) And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. (Liu Xiaoying,2013:24)Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Bassnnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:62)The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

From this conclusion, except the positive effects, what are the negative effects of cultural turn for the translation of poems and il's a shock to local cuture？(corrected by --[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Bassnett, Susan.(2002)Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere.(1990)Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

Bassnett, Susan,(2001)Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M.(2004)Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

Xu Tingting徐婷婷.(2021) 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2007)苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Changsha:Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

Liu Xiaoying刘小影.(2013)文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.(2012)创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.(2006)翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 5

2021-12-14T14:16:38Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Conclusion */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

='''Chapter 5 : An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn'''=
浅析“文化转向”原则下的品牌名翻译

李姗 Li Shan, Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract ==
Amid the deepening and widening of globalization, communications between different countries and regions have become increasingly frequent, particular in the sector of trade. Transnational corporations spring up like mushrooms. More and more brands are introduced inside and expanding outside. The first step of enterprises to expand overseas lies in the translation of the brand names. A good name foresees a good start. In this regard, cultural elements should be carefully taken into consideration in the process of translation.

This paper centers on the analysis of brand name translation in light of the principle of cultural turn. It could be divided into four parts in total. The first part is a brief introduction of the current international situation, and the purpose of this research. The second part is the short literature review in terms of both brand name translation and cultural turn. The third part is the main body of this paper, including the analysis of some successful cases of brand name translation as well as the analysis of failure ones. The last part is the summary of the whole and the significance of cultural turn in translation. Through this analysis, this paper aims to arouse people’s awareness of culture’s influence and urge them to pay more attention to cultural elements during the translation of brand names.

== Key Words ==
Cultural Turn; Brand Name Translation; Cross-culture Communication

== 摘要 ==
在全球化不断朝着纵深方向发展的背景下，不同国家和地区之间的各方面交流日益频繁，贸易行业尤其如此。跨国公司犹如雨后春笋，纷纷涌现，引进来和走出去的公司品牌越来越多。开拓外国新市场的第一步在于选取合适的品牌名。好的品牌名预示好的开始。而在翻译过程中，文化要素需要细心考量。

本文以文化转向为理论原则，以其为指导对品牌名的翻译进行分析研究。本文共包含四个部分。第一部分对当前国际现状以及研究目的进行了简要的介绍。第二部分是关于品牌名翻译和文化转向理论的文献综述。第三部分为本文的主体部分，对成功和失败的品牌名翻译进行了分析。最后一部分则概括总结本文所述内容，并阐述了翻译中文化转向的意义。通过对品牌名翻译进行简要分析研究，本文旨在激发人们翻译时的文化意识，在翻译品牌名时更多地关注文化要素。

== 关键词 ==
文化转向；品牌名翻译；跨文化交际

== Title ==
An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn

== Introduction ==
As each country in the world is woven tightly with one another and economic globalization has developed by leaps and bounds, communications and transactions between different countries as well as regions have become increasingly frequent. More and more brands begin to expand their market in foreign lands. To enter into a new territory, brands need to enhance their competitiveness, and more importantly to give the potential consumers a perfect first impression and thus make themselves mentally accepted and acknowledged by the potential clients of the targeted market. To have a good start, advertising is a good way to win a certain fame in a circle. But there is no doubt that the top priority lies in proper brand names as a matter of the fact that proper names could impress people with a surprise and then leave a deep and enduring imprint on their mind.

Guided by the policy of Reform and Opening-up, China has initiated One Belt and One Road proposal and is committed to promoting comprehensive cooperation in the range of globe, in addition to its active participation in various economic organizations. Beyond doubt, multi-national economic activities and collaborations will develop in depth and breadth. More and more brands will be introduced inside and go outside. Therefore, this paper decides to center on the subject of brand name translation. However, the reality has told us that economic activity is not merely an economic problem and translation is not an isolated activity. “It has to do with authority and legitimacy and, ultimately, with power. Translation is not just a ‘window opened on another world’, or some such pious platitude. Rather, translation is a channel opened, often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the native culture, challenge it, and even contribute to subverting it.” (Lefevere, 2003: 2) It is closely linked to history, politics and especially culture. Taking this into consideration, this paper desires to analyze the translation of brand names from the perspective of Cultural Turn, to figure out how cultural elements influence brand name translation so as to arouse brands’ awareness of cultural gap during their advertising activities.

== Literature Review ==
=== Literature Review on Brand Name Translation ===
Brand names are intangible assets of a company, carefully chosen and aimed at distinguishing itself from other rival brands and products. The same as our names represent our personality and show our originality, brand names play the role as the faces of the brands, in the very fact themselves being a part of the products of their brand (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 118). Original, novel and imaginary names could easily attract people’s attention, arouse their interests and ultimately promote the sales of products. To fulfill this supreme mission, transnational corporations and companies that prepare to expand foreign market would pay great attention to the translation of their brand names to fit in the cultural context of the target market. Consequently, the translation of brand names has drawn a lot of attention among a number of scholars and researchers.

In China, the first study regarding the translation of brand names can be traced back to the year of 1994, when Zhou Xiaobing has made a brief analysis of the brands names and classified four approaches to translating brand names against the background of China’s Reform and Opening-up (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 17). From then on, there has been several studies conducted in this aspect. However, it was since 2005 that respectively more scholars and researchers have their eyes turned to the translation of brand names. Among them, most researches are related to Skopos theory, for example the studies of Cao Zhao, who believed that the translation of brands names should be progressed in response to certain purposes. And some scholars centered around the guiding influence of functional equivalence on the translating process, such as Tian Yuxia and Du Shuling. In addition, some analyzed the translation of brand names from the perspective of culture, including Tang Degen, Liu Jiuping and Ai’ Supin cooperated with Cao Rong. Besides the perspectives mentioned above, there are also some studies conducted in terms of psychological theories, aesthetic principles of Xu Yuanchong and other approaches (Cao Zhao, 2006: 2).

At abroad, attention has long been paid to the function of brands as the development of marketing strategies. David Aaker has published his book of Managing Brand Equity in the year of 1991, which elaborates on how to create, market, develop and manage brands (Aaker, 1991: 20). Kevin Kelley in the book titled Strategic Brand Management offers the ways to construct brands, brand equity and brand management (Keller, 1998: 8). Both of the two books have emphasized the importance of having an excellent brand name and suggested the way to name a brand. As for the papers, there are a measure trove of them in the website. In them, Chow Clement has showed the dilemma of all marketers whether to translate the brand name into local language, while the cosmetic brand names of Iran were discussed; US brands in China were carefully analyzed to form a name translation model. Besides, Chao Paul has explored the strategies to translate brand names effectively by means of brand attitude reversal and perceived brand name translation relevance in an emerging market. Schmitt Bernd advocated to select the right brand name by carefully examining tacit and explicit linguistic knowledge in name translations (Schmitt, 2001: 314). All these papers have revealed that brand name translation is of some significance and worth of study.

=== Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory ===
Translation is not merely confined to the source language and target language, but also a social and cultural activity. Cultural elements must be carefully considered during the translating process. Since people from different nations all live in the same global village, it is of necessity to have frequent exchanges. Against the barrier of the tower of Babel, translators play the role of ladders, functioning as the bridge of effective communication between different linguistic groups. Thus, translators are actually not translating the two languages, but traveling back and forth within the two cultures (Casagrande, 1954: 338).

delete "social" of the 1st sentence_corrected by--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:43, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

After the second World War, against the background of hegemony and anti-hegemony, frequent communications across continents and countries, culture and across-culture communication have attracted more and more attention in the field of academic studies (Zeng Wenxiong, 2006: 92). As the beating power of deconstruction has greatly influenced structuralism linguistics, the former dominant linguistic approach to translation studies was shaking. The studies of text structure and meta-language has surrendered to the studies of discourse and the process of translation, which has exactly deepened the research of the cultural information of the text. The latter half of the 20th century has seen the combination of post-modern critical theories and the theory of deconstruction, thus offering a new approach to analyze translation. Different from mainly centering on the text analysis, more attention has been paid to the consideration of social, historical and cultural background of the correspondent time period. While conducting translation studies and putting forward translation principles, the academic community thus shifted their focus from merely language itself to the culture side. Then sprung two kinds of trends, the cultural turn of translation and the translation turn of literature (Lv Jun, 2004: 55).

Later twentieth century has witnessed the heat of studies of culture. In the 1970s, Israelite scholar Even-Zohar’s principle of Poly-system Theory together with Tory’s Descriptive Translation Studies have been regarded as the signs of the shift of translation to culture turn. However, cultural turn, in translation, is firstly put forward by Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere in their co-operated book Translation, History and Culture in the year of 1990 (Peng Ping, 2016: 140). In this book, they have elaborated on the power and influence of culture-related notions including history, authority and manipulation, and also narrated the aims and context of translation. Language, then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril (Bassnett, 2005: 23). Translation is not an arbitrary activity. It is conducted under certain principle and aimed to fulfill certain purpose. This paper is to elaborate on the translation of brand names with an emphasis on cultural elements.

== A Brief Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names Under Cultural Turn ==
Ever since the Industrial Revolution, commercialism rises up and all kinds of commodities appear one after another. The advances of economic globalization and cross-border transportation have also provided convenient access for foreign trade and business expansion. During the process of expansion, excellent brand names are for a certainty of great benefit to the brand’s further development.

change "rises" into rose/change "appear" into "appeared"_corrected by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:03, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Excellent Cases of Brand Name Translation ===
Focusing on our daily life, there are quite a few excellent translated brand names, which either use positive images, propitious words or contain rich cultural meanings.
==== The Use of Good Images ====
华硕 = Asus

“华硕”, a computer brand in China, its English name “Asus” comes from an ancient Greek myth. “Asus” is a part of “Pegasus”, which refers to a holy horse with wings. According to the myth, there is a woman named Medusa who is overly proud of her own beauty. That incurs the punishment of a goddess. She is turned into a dreadful enchantress and her golden long hair all become venomous snakes. Her glance at people would make petrified into stones. Then the hero Prometheus fights heavily against her and finally ended her life. Among her poisonous blood rises a holy horse with wings, running high above the sky. Thus, Pegasus the horse is commonly deemed as the symbol of creativity, virtue and beauty, especially referring to the novel thoughts of articles (Doros, 2018: 33). Through the use of this image, the brand presents a profile that its staff are creative and their aim is to bring better experience to users.

BWM = 宝马

The full name of the brand BWM is Bayerische Motoren Werke, which is short of the car plant. To make a stride in Chinese market, the brand chose “宝马” as its Chinese name, which in reality builds up a very impressive image for the brand. “宝” means something beautiful and precious, equaling to rare jewelry or great fortune. “马” is a beloved animal, which used to be the top transport tool for ancient Chinese people and when seeing this image, people may think of the legend that excellent horses can run very far and at a high speed. The combination of the two words impresses the idea that the cars of their brand are very pretty in its design and outlook, and also boast a good performance and high proficiency.

change "used to be" into "used to serve as"_corrected by--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:08, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

Land Rover = 路虎

Rover is a luxury car brand. And the word rover originally refers to an ancient nation in North Europe, renowned for courageous deeds. In English, the brand name constructs the picture that its cars are the same as those pioneering people who dare to counteract with any threat above the sea. Obviously, its Chinese version has successfully reproduced its original meaning. Although its ideal choice in the very beginning was “陆虎”, which was unfortunately pre-chosen by a rival. The present one is also very fantastic. “路” means the road, and “虎”, the tiger, a very strong and brave animal. As Land Rover specializes in off-road vehicles, the Chinese name “路虎” utterly shows its stance, a soldier of the road that no one would dare to or be able to hold back.

==== The Endowment of Rich Cultural Connotations ====
金典 = Satine

“金典” is one of the brands of Yili Industry Group Co., Ltd., a giant milk producer. "金" is gold in Chinese, showing that the milk boasts good quality. And "典" equals to classical, which means the taste of the milk is pure and authentic. This brand claims to be of high quality and aims at the high-end market, and in deed it occupies a large piece of pie in the plate of Chinese milk industry. As a high-end milk brand, the foreign name it chooses also shows its good taste. "Satine" is a French word, with the connotation of "as smooth as silk" (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 18). It implies that the milk boasts good quality and tastes silky, which runs in line with its orientation at middle and high-end market.

Revlon = 露华浓

Revlon is an American cosmetic brand, with foundation, lipstick and various make-up products on sale and young female users as its target consumers. Its Chinese name "露华浓", full of poetic meaning, actually comes from a poem written by a distinguished poet from Tang dynasty, named Li Bai. That poem utters a praise of the beauty of an imperial concubine, Miss Yang and she is one of the four great beauties in ancient China. The line that it comes from is “云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓”, which means when one sees the clouds in the sky, one would think of her gorgeous clothes; when one sees the flowers, one would think of her charming countenance; and the favor of the wind makes the flower even more beautiful. Through the device of metaphor, this poem vividly describes the extreme beauty of the dignified imperial concubine (Li Bai, 2009: 365). Therefore, when a cosmetic brand is connected with a poem that glorifies the beauty of a gorgeous woman, a good association is formed at ease. Therefore, the localized name of Revlon could easily attract females' attention in China and win their favor at the first sight.

Kiehl's = 科颜氏

As one of the most popular cosmetic brands in China, Kiehl's boast a good Chinese name. It was in the year of 2009 when this brand became a part of L' Oreal Group that it took the Chinese name of “科颜氏”. However, in the very beginning, it was called “契尔氏”, which could hardly trigger any related association. "科颜氏" may remind one of “神农氏”, a herborist who tastes all kinds of herbs in person to figure out their functions. And the brand shares a similar story since it stems from a pharmacy which sells unguents made up of natural plants in its early period. And at present, it advertises to be gentle and natural, free of stimulus and suitable to sensitive skins. In this regard, the two do share some common points. Thus, the association of the two would also add glory to the brand. "科" means scientific or science and "颜" means good appearance, the combination of the two would increase the sense of authority and leave consumers the impression that products of this brand would truly improve their outlook.

==== The Use of Novel Word Combinations ====
良品铺子 = Bestore

“良品铺子” is a famous Chinese snack brand familiar to almost everyone who is fond of snacks. The first two characters of the brand name means goods of high quality, and the latter two is the equivalent word for a shop or store in English. Its English translation is "Bestore", made up of "be" and "store". Through the word store, it makes the consumers clear about the types of its products on sale and the prefix "be" makes it cuter and a little bit special, distinguishing this brand from the ordinary unnamed stores (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 17). Thus, it may give people an impression of warmth and coziness, which completely corresponds with the image of a snack brand.

茶颜悦色 = Sexy Tea

Sexy Tea, an influential milk tea brand with its home located in Changsha city, Hunan province. The design of the brand is quaint, characteristic of ancient style. And the image of this brand is the pretty caricature of Lin Daiyu, a major figure of "Dream of the Red Chamber", one of the four Chinese classics. “茶颜” could be understood as the appearance or outlook of tea. “悦色” is a phrase that means a pretty and satisfying countenance or the act of satisfying people. In the translation, the words “sexy” and “tea” makes a very novel combination. “Tea” shows the nature of the brand, while the word “sexy” may easily trigger foreigners' attention and curiosity. How can a cup of milk tea be sexy? What would it taste like? Thus, this kind of emotion would persuade a number of foreign friends to have a try in its shops.

美加净 = Maxam

“美加净” is a time-honored cosmetic brand in China. Its selling point lies in the baby care products, though a lot of adult females have also been attracted by it. In Chinese culture, “美” means beauty, and “净” means cleanliness. The two are linked by the word “加”, which means plus. That is to say these products can make one's skin both beautiful and clean. The English name of Maxam has properly expressed this connotation. Maxam is similar to the word maximum both in sound and in spelling, thus, it opts to impress people as maximizing one's beauty to largest degree.

After a careful analysis of the successful brand names in the fields of car, food and cosmetics both in China and at abroad, we may make a summary of the common points that they share. First of all, positive images and words are preferred to constitute their names, most of which are combinations of adjectives and nouns that hold propitious senses. The association of pure verbs with fine connotations also offers great novelty and is of great appeal to the audience (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). What’s more, the translated brand names all possess good meaning in the cultural context of the target market, without any ambiguous or implicit reference to something negative in that culture. In addition, most brands would prefer to reveal the category of their products in their names. That makes it quite easy for the consumers to know their functions by a mere glimpse. The guidelines of these successful brand names would offer valuable experiences for the other brands.

=== Failure Cases of the Brand Name Translation ===
Besides those excellent cases, failure cases of brand name translation also abound in the global market.

==== The Misuse of Negative Images ====
白猫 = white cat

“白猫” is a producer of wash supplies. It occupies a large share of Chinese market and its existence could be caught in almost every store and supermarket. There is no doubt that a great number of people would be shocked to see that it is translated into White Cat directly. In western culture, cat is a negative image that is usually regarded as an evil creature in everyday life. For example, in Edgar Allen Poe’s short novel, the black cat is deemed by people as an incarnation of witches, the embodiment of evil forces. Though the color of white is the symbol for purity and faith, the cat image owns such a strong influence that the positive meaning of the former is easily offset in their combination.

白象 = White Elephant

“白象” is a Chinese supplier of battery. In Chinese culture, elephant boast the meaning of good luck. But after it is translated into English, it is literally named as White Elephant, which is definitely a failure case that should be avoided in the context of western culture. Because in English world, white elephant holds pretty negative meaning, referring to those flashy stuff that are elegant but useless (Cao Zhao, 2006: 20). Therefore, the brand name would leave people the impression that the battery the brand sells are the same as white elephants, expensive but not enduring.

==== The Ambiguous Pronunciation of Words ====
方太 = FOTILE

“方太” is a brand that specializes in manufacturing and selling household electrical appliances. There are two levels of meanings lying in this name. Firstly, when the brand was to intitle a new name, there was a heated TV show named as Fang Tai Food Square. The brand decided to take this name to attract people’s attention, especially those audience who are fond of that reality show. Secondly, “方太” can also be seen as the abbreviation of “方便太太”, that is, to bring convenience to the household wives. Obviously, the Chinese brand name shares many links with keeping kitchen clean as well as simplifying household duties. However, its translation is far from satisfying, not to mention expressing these implications. The sound of “FOTILE” is extremely similar to the pronunciation of the word “futile”. Therefore, it could be easily uttered in the wrong way and leaves a terrible impression on people’s mind. Few people would take the risk to purchase some appliance that seems to be “futile”.

Standard Chartered Bank = 渣打银行

Standard Chartered is an international bank with its headquarter located in Britain. It promises the service principle of “Here for good”. When it had its debut in Shanghai, China, it used “渣打” as its name. However, in Chinese, “渣” means dregs and “打”is a verb that means breaking up. The combination of the two fail to form a convincing image required for a bank. Except those who have certain knowledge about it, ordinary people would not list it as their hold-up vessel of money, as its name grants the bank little credit, far away from convincing.

Warsteiner = 沃斯乐/沃斯坦

Warsteiner is a time-honored and highly-welcomed beer producer in Germany. Warsteiner is named after the city where the beer is produced and it implies that the water used to produce the beer comes from the mountain spring, which is natural and clean (Woesler, Martin). But it boasts little fame in China, for it was translated into “沃斯乐” during its first entry into Chinese market. The pronunciation of that name is quite similar to "我死了" in Chinese. Death is a taboo word in Chinese culture, seldom referred in public, let alone related to a retailor brand. Even though it is renamed later, the present name 沃斯坦 still fails to arouse people's wide attention or strong interest in the broad market of China.

==== The Loss of Cultural Connotation ====
方正 = Founder

“方正” is a computer brand, invested by one of the top universities in China, Peking University in 1986. Its name is said to originate from a sentence of Biography of the Han Dynasty · Chao Cuo, that carefully examine others’ behavior so as not to misunderstand them, strictly abide by decrees without personal interests, do your utmost to accomplish the tasks delegated from the leaders without complaint; dare not the death even in face of dangers, do not occupy a position when there is someone more competitive than you, accept proper amount of gains in accordance with your efforts, and never stay on a position while you are not qualified, only those who possess all these virtues could be regarded as truly virtuous men (Ban Gu, 2018: 860). Here, “方正” is of rich cultural connotation and refers to virtuous deeds. However, its correspondent translation runs away from its original meaning. The word “founder” not only could refer to the pioneer of something, but also means the failure, breaking-down of something. In light of this, when the initial founder of this company was experiencing an emergent incident in 2000, foreign media bantered that “the Founder’s founder founders”. To avoid such teas, more attention should be paid to the translation of brand name.

DS (Deesse) = 谛艾仕

DS is a top luxury car brand in French auto industry, short of Déesse which means goddess. This brand received warmly welcome from government officials in France. But its translated Chinese brings it another picture in China. It neither expressed its original cultural meaning, nor integrated into Chinese culture. The name “谛艾仕” could hardly invoke any association of people towards splendid cars, as it was just mechanically translated in line with its pronunciation. Thus, cars of this brand are less seen in webs of transportation than BWM and Benz in China.

After the analysis of some failure cases of brand name translation, we may draw a brief conclusion about the causes that lead to their failure. Firstly, the failure lies in the misuse of improper images. Different culture has different cultural images. And the connotation that an image or object is endowed with may differ from country to country or culture to culture (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). Thus, great attention should be called when it comes to choose a name embodied with images. Secondly, the failure lies in the choice of words with ambiguous pronunciation. The words that share similar sounds with original characters may cause misunderstanding in another culture, since it could sound like another word that contains negative meaning. Thus, the desire to have links between original brand name and translated version could run counter to one's desire. Thirdly, the failure lies in the loss of cultural sense. Some name brands are taking on cultural elements that are confined in the source cultural context. But the translators merely frankly translate those names without a thought of conveying the deep-buried cultural meaning so that these brands fail to perform as well as expected. To avoid bad translations, the causes of them listed above deserve careful attention.

== Conclusion ==
Translation is not just a process that happens in the translator’s head. Readers decide to accept or reject translations (Lefevere, 2003: 5). Good translations keep the spirit without moving away from the letter. Bad translations render the letter without the spirit in a low and servile imitation. After a careful analysis of some brand name translations, the phrase “cultural turn” would be a great answer to the question of how to translate brand names. When we speak of “a culture” or “the receiving culture,” we would do well to remember that cultures are not monolithic entities, but that there is always a tension inside a culture between different groups, or individuals, who want to influence the evolution of that culture in the way they think best. Translations have been made with the intention of influencing the development of a culture (Lefevere, 2003: 8). That means more attention should be paid to the culture of the target language in the process of translation so as to gain expected response. In terms of brand name translation, cultural elements should be seriously taken into consideration. The constituent images and words should be carefully chosen and the pronunciation and implication of the names also need detailed examination in the context of targeted market. And it is easier to expand a new territory when a brand is shouldered local color.

Besides the benefit it brings to the brand, cultural turn in brand name translation also boasts other significance. Firstly, more attention to the consumers’ culture is a manifestation of taking the target consumers into consideration, thus, bring them a sense of being cared about; secondly, translated brand names themselves can be seen as cultural elements, contributing to people’s acquaintance with and understanding of the culture of another community, thus good for mutual understanding and cultural communications; thirdly, it is significant to the development of multi-culturalism since every culture is precious treasure in the world treasure-house of intellect and heritage, while some culture has been long in the dominant position and continuously posing threat to other cultures due to the disparity of political and economic forces (Xie Tianzhen, 2006: 12). More concern about and consideration of the culture of another community is necessary to eliminate and prevent cultural hegemony and supremacy. From this point of view, cultural turn in brand name translation is of great significance.(written by--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

In my opinion,the first paragraph of conclusion part should be simpler or more concise.It is better to put the main idea in the first sentence._corrected by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:16, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

== References ==
Aaker, David. Managign Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name[M]. New York: Free Press, 1991.

Ban Gu 班固（2018）. 汉书[M] The Book of Han Dynasty. 郑州: 中州古籍出版社 Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Press, 860-862.

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. New York: Routledge, 2005.

Cao Zhao 曹昭（2006）. 品牌名翻译的目的与适应性研究[D] Study on the Purposes and Adaptability of Brand Name Translation. 西安电子科技大学 Xidian University.

Casgrand, J. B. The End of Translation [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1954(04): 330-340.

Doros Apollo, Zhou Zuoren阿波罗·多洛斯著，周作人译（2018）．希腊神话[M] Greek Mythology.长江出版社 Changjiang Press, 33-34.

Keller, Kevin. Strategic Brand Management[M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998.

Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture[M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Li Bai 李白（2009）. 李太白诗集[M] Poetry of Li Bai. China Book Bureau, 360-365.

Liu Jiuping 刘久平（2001）. 品牌名翻译与文化差异[J] Brand Name Translation and Cultural Differences. 广西大学学报 Journal of Guangxi University, 12: 117-119.

Lv Jun 吕俊（2004）. 论翻译研究的本体回归——对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J] The Return of the Noumenon of Translation Studies —— Reflections on “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University, 4: 53-59.

Peng Ping 彭萍（2016）. 当代西方翻译研究的“文化转向”和“社会转向”综述[J] Summary of “Cultural Turn” and “Social Turn” in Contemporary Western Translation Studies. 江西师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Jiangxi Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition), 3: 140-144.

Schmitt, B. H. Creating Local Brands in Multilingual International Markets[J]. Journal of Marketing Reserch, 2001(08): 313-325.
Wang Ning 王宁（2009）. 比较文学与翻译研究的文化转向[J] “Cultural Turn” in Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 5: 19-26.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振（2006）. 翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J] Comparative Literary Significance of “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 中国比较文学 Journal of Chinese Comparative Literature, 3: 1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong 曾文雄（2006）.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J] The Keys Problems and Way out of "Cultural Turn". 外语学刊Foreign Language Journal, 2: 90-96.

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Cult Turn EN 5

2021-12-14T14:08:43Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* The Use of Good Images */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

='''Chapter 5 : An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn'''=
浅析“文化转向”原则下的品牌名翻译

李姗 Li Shan, Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract ==
Amid the deepening and widening of globalization, communications between different countries and regions have become increasingly frequent, particular in the sector of trade. Transnational corporations spring up like mushrooms. More and more brands are introduced inside and expanding outside. The first step of enterprises to expand overseas lies in the translation of the brand names. A good name foresees a good start. In this regard, cultural elements should be carefully taken into consideration in the process of translation.

This paper centers on the analysis of brand name translation in light of the principle of cultural turn. It could be divided into four parts in total. The first part is a brief introduction of the current international situation, and the purpose of this research. The second part is the short literature review in terms of both brand name translation and cultural turn. The third part is the main body of this paper, including the analysis of some successful cases of brand name translation as well as the analysis of failure ones. The last part is the summary of the whole and the significance of cultural turn in translation. Through this analysis, this paper aims to arouse people’s awareness of culture’s influence and urge them to pay more attention to cultural elements during the translation of brand names.

== Key Words ==
Cultural Turn; Brand Name Translation; Cross-culture Communication

== 摘要 ==
在全球化不断朝着纵深方向发展的背景下，不同国家和地区之间的各方面交流日益频繁，贸易行业尤其如此。跨国公司犹如雨后春笋，纷纷涌现，引进来和走出去的公司品牌越来越多。开拓外国新市场的第一步在于选取合适的品牌名。好的品牌名预示好的开始。而在翻译过程中，文化要素需要细心考量。

本文以文化转向为理论原则，以其为指导对品牌名的翻译进行分析研究。本文共包含四个部分。第一部分对当前国际现状以及研究目的进行了简要的介绍。第二部分是关于品牌名翻译和文化转向理论的文献综述。第三部分为本文的主体部分，对成功和失败的品牌名翻译进行了分析。最后一部分则概括总结本文所述内容，并阐述了翻译中文化转向的意义。通过对品牌名翻译进行简要分析研究，本文旨在激发人们翻译时的文化意识，在翻译品牌名时更多地关注文化要素。

== 关键词 ==
文化转向；品牌名翻译；跨文化交际

== Title ==
An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn

== Introduction ==
As each country in the world is woven tightly with one another and economic globalization has developed by leaps and bounds, communications and transactions between different countries as well as regions have become increasingly frequent. More and more brands begin to expand their market in foreign lands. To enter into a new territory, brands need to enhance their competitiveness, and more importantly to give the potential consumers a perfect first impression and thus make themselves mentally accepted and acknowledged by the potential clients of the targeted market. To have a good start, advertising is a good way to win a certain fame in a circle. But there is no doubt that the top priority lies in proper brand names as a matter of the fact that proper names could impress people with a surprise and then leave a deep and enduring imprint on their mind.

Guided by the policy of Reform and Opening-up, China has initiated One Belt and One Road proposal and is committed to promoting comprehensive cooperation in the range of globe, in addition to its active participation in various economic organizations. Beyond doubt, multi-national economic activities and collaborations will develop in depth and breadth. More and more brands will be introduced inside and go outside. Therefore, this paper decides to center on the subject of brand name translation. However, the reality has told us that economic activity is not merely an economic problem and translation is not an isolated activity. “It has to do with authority and legitimacy and, ultimately, with power. Translation is not just a ‘window opened on another world’, or some such pious platitude. Rather, translation is a channel opened, often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the native culture, challenge it, and even contribute to subverting it.” (Lefevere, 2003: 2) It is closely linked to history, politics and especially culture. Taking this into consideration, this paper desires to analyze the translation of brand names from the perspective of Cultural Turn, to figure out how cultural elements influence brand name translation so as to arouse brands’ awareness of cultural gap during their advertising activities.

== Literature Review ==
=== Literature Review on Brand Name Translation ===
Brand names are intangible assets of a company, carefully chosen and aimed at distinguishing itself from other rival brands and products. The same as our names represent our personality and show our originality, brand names play the role as the faces of the brands, in the very fact themselves being a part of the products of their brand (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 118). Original, novel and imaginary names could easily attract people’s attention, arouse their interests and ultimately promote the sales of products. To fulfill this supreme mission, transnational corporations and companies that prepare to expand foreign market would pay great attention to the translation of their brand names to fit in the cultural context of the target market. Consequently, the translation of brand names has drawn a lot of attention among a number of scholars and researchers.

In China, the first study regarding the translation of brand names can be traced back to the year of 1994, when Zhou Xiaobing has made a brief analysis of the brands names and classified four approaches to translating brand names against the background of China’s Reform and Opening-up (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 17). From then on, there has been several studies conducted in this aspect. However, it was since 2005 that respectively more scholars and researchers have their eyes turned to the translation of brand names. Among them, most researches are related to Skopos theory, for example the studies of Cao Zhao, who believed that the translation of brands names should be progressed in response to certain purposes. And some scholars centered around the guiding influence of functional equivalence on the translating process, such as Tian Yuxia and Du Shuling. In addition, some analyzed the translation of brand names from the perspective of culture, including Tang Degen, Liu Jiuping and Ai’ Supin cooperated with Cao Rong. Besides the perspectives mentioned above, there are also some studies conducted in terms of psychological theories, aesthetic principles of Xu Yuanchong and other approaches (Cao Zhao, 2006: 2).

At abroad, attention has long been paid to the function of brands as the development of marketing strategies. David Aaker has published his book of Managing Brand Equity in the year of 1991, which elaborates on how to create, market, develop and manage brands (Aaker, 1991: 20). Kevin Kelley in the book titled Strategic Brand Management offers the ways to construct brands, brand equity and brand management (Keller, 1998: 8). Both of the two books have emphasized the importance of having an excellent brand name and suggested the way to name a brand. As for the papers, there are a measure trove of them in the website. In them, Chow Clement has showed the dilemma of all marketers whether to translate the brand name into local language, while the cosmetic brand names of Iran were discussed; US brands in China were carefully analyzed to form a name translation model. Besides, Chao Paul has explored the strategies to translate brand names effectively by means of brand attitude reversal and perceived brand name translation relevance in an emerging market. Schmitt Bernd advocated to select the right brand name by carefully examining tacit and explicit linguistic knowledge in name translations (Schmitt, 2001: 314). All these papers have revealed that brand name translation is of some significance and worth of study.

=== Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory ===
Translation is not merely confined to the source language and target language, but also a social and cultural activity. Cultural elements must be carefully considered during the translating process. Since people from different nations all live in the same global village, it is of necessity to have frequent exchanges. Against the barrier of the tower of Babel, translators play the role of ladders, functioning as the bridge of effective communication between different linguistic groups. Thus, translators are actually not translating the two languages, but traveling back and forth within the two cultures (Casagrande, 1954: 338).

delete "social" of the 1st sentence_corrected by--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:43, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

After the second World War, against the background of hegemony and anti-hegemony, frequent communications across continents and countries, culture and across-culture communication have attracted more and more attention in the field of academic studies (Zeng Wenxiong, 2006: 92). As the beating power of deconstruction has greatly influenced structuralism linguistics, the former dominant linguistic approach to translation studies was shaking. The studies of text structure and meta-language has surrendered to the studies of discourse and the process of translation, which has exactly deepened the research of the cultural information of the text. The latter half of the 20th century has seen the combination of post-modern critical theories and the theory of deconstruction, thus offering a new approach to analyze translation. Different from mainly centering on the text analysis, more attention has been paid to the consideration of social, historical and cultural background of the correspondent time period. While conducting translation studies and putting forward translation principles, the academic community thus shifted their focus from merely language itself to the culture side. Then sprung two kinds of trends, the cultural turn of translation and the translation turn of literature (Lv Jun, 2004: 55).

Later twentieth century has witnessed the heat of studies of culture. In the 1970s, Israelite scholar Even-Zohar’s principle of Poly-system Theory together with Tory’s Descriptive Translation Studies have been regarded as the signs of the shift of translation to culture turn. However, cultural turn, in translation, is firstly put forward by Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere in their co-operated book Translation, History and Culture in the year of 1990 (Peng Ping, 2016: 140). In this book, they have elaborated on the power and influence of culture-related notions including history, authority and manipulation, and also narrated the aims and context of translation. Language, then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril (Bassnett, 2005: 23). Translation is not an arbitrary activity. It is conducted under certain principle and aimed to fulfill certain purpose. This paper is to elaborate on the translation of brand names with an emphasis on cultural elements.

== A Brief Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names Under Cultural Turn ==
Ever since the Industrial Revolution, commercialism rises up and all kinds of commodities appear one after another. The advances of economic globalization and cross-border transportation have also provided convenient access for foreign trade and business expansion. During the process of expansion, excellent brand names are for a certainty of great benefit to the brand’s further development.

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=== Excellent Cases of Brand Name Translation ===
Focusing on our daily life, there are quite a few excellent translated brand names, which either use positive images, propitious words or contain rich cultural meanings.
==== The Use of Good Images ====
华硕 = Asus

“华硕”, a computer brand in China, its English name “Asus” comes from an ancient Greek myth. “Asus” is a part of “Pegasus”, which refers to a holy horse with wings. According to the myth, there is a woman named Medusa who is overly proud of her own beauty. That incurs the punishment of a goddess. She is turned into a dreadful enchantress and her golden long hair all become venomous snakes. Her glance at people would make petrified into stones. Then the hero Prometheus fights heavily against her and finally ended her life. Among her poisonous blood rises a holy horse with wings, running high above the sky. Thus, Pegasus the horse is commonly deemed as the symbol of creativity, virtue and beauty, especially referring to the novel thoughts of articles (Doros, 2018: 33). Through the use of this image, the brand presents a profile that its staff are creative and their aim is to bring better experience to users.

BWM = 宝马

The full name of the brand BWM is Bayerische Motoren Werke, which is short of the car plant. To make a stride in Chinese market, the brand chose “宝马” as its Chinese name, which in reality builds up a very impressive image for the brand. “宝” means something beautiful and precious, equaling to rare jewelry or great fortune. “马” is a beloved animal, which used to be the top transport tool for ancient Chinese people and when seeing this image, people may think of the legend that excellent horses can run very far and at a high speed. The combination of the two words impresses the idea that the cars of their brand are very pretty in its design and outlook, and also boast a good performance and high proficiency.

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Land Rover = 路虎

Rover is a luxury car brand. And the word rover originally refers to an ancient nation in North Europe, renowned for courageous deeds. In English, the brand name constructs the picture that its cars are the same as those pioneering people who dare to counteract with any threat above the sea. Obviously, its Chinese version has successfully reproduced its original meaning. Although its ideal choice in the very beginning was “陆虎”, which was unfortunately pre-chosen by a rival. The present one is also very fantastic. “路” means the road, and “虎”, the tiger, a very strong and brave animal. As Land Rover specializes in off-road vehicles, the Chinese name “路虎” utterly shows its stance, a soldier of the road that no one would dare to or be able to hold back.

==== The Endowment of Rich Cultural Connotations ====
金典 = Satine

“金典” is one of the brands of Yili Industry Group Co., Ltd., a giant milk producer. "金" is gold in Chinese, showing that the milk boasts good quality. And "典" equals to classical, which means the taste of the milk is pure and authentic. This brand claims to be of high quality and aims at the high-end market, and in deed it occupies a large piece of pie in the plate of Chinese milk industry. As a high-end milk brand, the foreign name it chooses also shows its good taste. "Satine" is a French word, with the connotation of "as smooth as silk" (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 18). It implies that the milk boasts good quality and tastes silky, which runs in line with its orientation at middle and high-end market.

Revlon = 露华浓

Revlon is an American cosmetic brand, with foundation, lipstick and various make-up products on sale and young female users as its target consumers. Its Chinese name "露华浓", full of poetic meaning, actually comes from a poem written by a distinguished poet from Tang dynasty, named Li Bai. That poem utters a praise of the beauty of an imperial concubine, Miss Yang and she is one of the four great beauties in ancient China. The line that it comes from is “云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓”, which means when one sees the clouds in the sky, one would think of her gorgeous clothes; when one sees the flowers, one would think of her charming countenance; and the favor of the wind makes the flower even more beautiful. Through the device of metaphor, this poem vividly describes the extreme beauty of the dignified imperial concubine (Li Bai, 2009: 365). Therefore, when a cosmetic brand is connected with a poem that glorifies the beauty of a gorgeous woman, a good association is formed at ease. Therefore, the localized name of Revlon could easily attract females' attention in China and win their favor at the first sight.

Kiehl's = 科颜氏

As one of the most popular cosmetic brands in China, Kiehl's boast a good Chinese name. It was in the year of 2009 when this brand became a part of L' Oreal Group that it took the Chinese name of “科颜氏”. However, in the very beginning, it was called “契尔氏”, which could hardly trigger any related association. "科颜氏" may remind one of “神农氏”, a herborist who tastes all kinds of herbs in person to figure out their functions. And the brand shares a similar story since it stems from a pharmacy which sells unguents made up of natural plants in its early period. And at present, it advertises to be gentle and natural, free of stimulus and suitable to sensitive skins. In this regard, the two do share some common points. Thus, the association of the two would also add glory to the brand. "科" means scientific or science and "颜" means good appearance, the combination of the two would increase the sense of authority and leave consumers the impression that products of this brand would truly improve their outlook.

==== The Use of Novel Word Combinations ====
良品铺子 = Bestore

“良品铺子” is a famous Chinese snack brand familiar to almost everyone who is fond of snacks. The first two characters of the brand name means goods of high quality, and the latter two is the equivalent word for a shop or store in English. Its English translation is "Bestore", made up of "be" and "store". Through the word store, it makes the consumers clear about the types of its products on sale and the prefix "be" makes it cuter and a little bit special, distinguishing this brand from the ordinary unnamed stores (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 17). Thus, it may give people an impression of warmth and coziness, which completely corresponds with the image of a snack brand.

茶颜悦色 = Sexy Tea

Sexy Tea, an influential milk tea brand with its home located in Changsha city, Hunan province. The design of the brand is quaint, characteristic of ancient style. And the image of this brand is the pretty caricature of Lin Daiyu, a major figure of "Dream of the Red Chamber", one of the four Chinese classics. “茶颜” could be understood as the appearance or outlook of tea. “悦色” is a phrase that means a pretty and satisfying countenance or the act of satisfying people. In the translation, the words “sexy” and “tea” makes a very novel combination. “Tea” shows the nature of the brand, while the word “sexy” may easily trigger foreigners' attention and curiosity. How can a cup of milk tea be sexy? What would it taste like? Thus, this kind of emotion would persuade a number of foreign friends to have a try in its shops.

美加净 = Maxam

“美加净” is a time-honored cosmetic brand in China. Its selling point lies in the baby care products, though a lot of adult females have also been attracted by it. In Chinese culture, “美” means beauty, and “净” means cleanliness. The two are linked by the word “加”, which means plus. That is to say these products can make one's skin both beautiful and clean. The English name of Maxam has properly expressed this connotation. Maxam is similar to the word maximum both in sound and in spelling, thus, it opts to impress people as maximizing one's beauty to largest degree.

After a careful analysis of the successful brand names in the fields of car, food and cosmetics both in China and at abroad, we may make a summary of the common points that they share. First of all, positive images and words are preferred to constitute their names, most of which are combinations of adjectives and nouns that hold propitious senses. The association of pure verbs with fine connotations also offers great novelty and is of great appeal to the audience (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). What’s more, the translated brand names all possess good meaning in the cultural context of the target market, without any ambiguous or implicit reference to something negative in that culture. In addition, most brands would prefer to reveal the category of their products in their names. That makes it quite easy for the consumers to know their functions by a mere glimpse. The guidelines of these successful brand names would offer valuable experiences for the other brands.

=== Failure Cases of the Brand Name Translation ===
Besides those excellent cases, failure cases of brand name translation also abound in the global market.

==== The Misuse of Negative Images ====
白猫 = white cat

“白猫” is a producer of wash supplies. It occupies a large share of Chinese market and its existence could be caught in almost every store and supermarket. There is no doubt that a great number of people would be shocked to see that it is translated into White Cat directly. In western culture, cat is a negative image that is usually regarded as an evil creature in everyday life. For example, in Edgar Allen Poe’s short novel, the black cat is deemed by people as an incarnation of witches, the embodiment of evil forces. Though the color of white is the symbol for purity and faith, the cat image owns such a strong influence that the positive meaning of the former is easily offset in their combination.

白象 = White Elephant

“白象” is a Chinese supplier of battery. In Chinese culture, elephant boast the meaning of good luck. But after it is translated into English, it is literally named as White Elephant, which is definitely a failure case that should be avoided in the context of western culture. Because in English world, white elephant holds pretty negative meaning, referring to those flashy stuff that are elegant but useless (Cao Zhao, 2006: 20). Therefore, the brand name would leave people the impression that the battery the brand sells are the same as white elephants, expensive but not enduring.

==== The Ambiguous Pronunciation of Words ====
方太 = FOTILE

“方太” is a brand that specializes in manufacturing and selling household electrical appliances. There are two levels of meanings lying in this name. Firstly, when the brand was to intitle a new name, there was a heated TV show named as Fang Tai Food Square. The brand decided to take this name to attract people’s attention, especially those audience who are fond of that reality show. Secondly, “方太” can also be seen as the abbreviation of “方便太太”, that is, to bring convenience to the household wives. Obviously, the Chinese brand name shares many links with keeping kitchen clean as well as simplifying household duties. However, its translation is far from satisfying, not to mention expressing these implications. The sound of “FOTILE” is extremely similar to the pronunciation of the word “futile”. Therefore, it could be easily uttered in the wrong way and leaves a terrible impression on people’s mind. Few people would take the risk to purchase some appliance that seems to be “futile”.

Standard Chartered Bank = 渣打银行

Standard Chartered is an international bank with its headquarter located in Britain. It promises the service principle of “Here for good”. When it had its debut in Shanghai, China, it used “渣打” as its name. However, in Chinese, “渣” means dregs and “打”is a verb that means breaking up. The combination of the two fail to form a convincing image required for a bank. Except those who have certain knowledge about it, ordinary people would not list it as their hold-up vessel of money, as its name grants the bank little credit, far away from convincing.

Warsteiner = 沃斯乐/沃斯坦

Warsteiner is a time-honored and highly-welcomed beer producer in Germany. Warsteiner is named after the city where the beer is produced and it implies that the water used to produce the beer comes from the mountain spring, which is natural and clean (Woesler, Martin). But it boasts little fame in China, for it was translated into “沃斯乐” during its first entry into Chinese market. The pronunciation of that name is quite similar to "我死了" in Chinese. Death is a taboo word in Chinese culture, seldom referred in public, let alone related to a retailor brand. Even though it is renamed later, the present name 沃斯坦 still fails to arouse people's wide attention or strong interest in the broad market of China.

==== The Loss of Cultural Connotation ====
方正 = Founder

“方正” is a computer brand, invested by one of the top universities in China, Peking University in 1986. Its name is said to originate from a sentence of Biography of the Han Dynasty · Chao Cuo, that carefully examine others’ behavior so as not to misunderstand them, strictly abide by decrees without personal interests, do your utmost to accomplish the tasks delegated from the leaders without complaint; dare not the death even in face of dangers, do not occupy a position when there is someone more competitive than you, accept proper amount of gains in accordance with your efforts, and never stay on a position while you are not qualified, only those who possess all these virtues could be regarded as truly virtuous men (Ban Gu, 2018: 860). Here, “方正” is of rich cultural connotation and refers to virtuous deeds. However, its correspondent translation runs away from its original meaning. The word “founder” not only could refer to the pioneer of something, but also means the failure, breaking-down of something. In light of this, when the initial founder of this company was experiencing an emergent incident in 2000, foreign media bantered that “the Founder’s founder founders”. To avoid such teas, more attention should be paid to the translation of brand name.

DS (Deesse) = 谛艾仕

DS is a top luxury car brand in French auto industry, short of Déesse which means goddess. This brand received warmly welcome from government officials in France. But its translated Chinese brings it another picture in China. It neither expressed its original cultural meaning, nor integrated into Chinese culture. The name “谛艾仕” could hardly invoke any association of people towards splendid cars, as it was just mechanically translated in line with its pronunciation. Thus, cars of this brand are less seen in webs of transportation than BWM and Benz in China.

After the analysis of some failure cases of brand name translation, we may draw a brief conclusion about the causes that lead to their failure. Firstly, the failure lies in the misuse of improper images. Different culture has different cultural images. And the connotation that an image or object is endowed with may differ from country to country or culture to culture (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). Thus, great attention should be called when it comes to choose a name embodied with images. Secondly, the failure lies in the choice of words with ambiguous pronunciation. The words that share similar sounds with original characters may cause misunderstanding in another culture, since it could sound like another word that contains negative meaning. Thus, the desire to have links between original brand name and translated version could run counter to one's desire. Thirdly, the failure lies in the loss of cultural sense. Some name brands are taking on cultural elements that are confined in the source cultural context. But the translators merely frankly translate those names without a thought of conveying the deep-buried cultural meaning so that these brands fail to perform as well as expected. To avoid bad translations, the causes of them listed above deserve careful attention.

== Conclusion ==
Translation is not just a process that happens in the translator’s head. Readers decide to accept or reject translations (Lefevere, 2003: 5). Good translations keep the spirit without moving away from the letter. Bad translations render the letter without the spirit in a low and servile imitation. After a careful analysis of some brand name translations, the phrase “cultural turn” would be a great answer to the question of how to translate brand names. When we speak of “a culture” or “the receiving culture,” we would do well to remember that cultures are not monolithic entities, but that there is always a tension inside a culture between different groups, or individuals, who want to influence the evolution of that culture in the way they think best. Translations have been made with the intention of influencing the development of a culture (Lefevere, 2003: 8). That means more attention should be paid to the culture of the target language in the process of translation so as to gain expected response. In terms of brand name translation, cultural elements should be seriously taken into consideration. The constituent images and words should be carefully chosen and the pronunciation and implication of the names also need detailed examination in the context of targeted market. And it is easier to expand a new territory when a brand is shouldered local color.

Besides the benefit it brings to the brand, cultural turn in brand name translation also boasts other significance. Firstly, more attention to the consumers’ culture is a manifestation of taking the target consumers into consideration, thus, bring them a sense of being cared about; secondly, translated brand names themselves can be seen as cultural elements, contributing to people’s acquaintance with and understanding of the culture of another community, thus good for mutual understanding and cultural communications; thirdly, it is significant to the development of multi-culturalism since every culture is precious treasure in the world treasure-house of intellect and heritage, while some culture has been long in the dominant position and continuously posing threat to other cultures due to the disparity of political and economic forces (Xie Tianzhen, 2006: 12). More concern about and consideration of the culture of another community is necessary to eliminate and prevent cultural hegemony and supremacy. From this point of view, cultural turn in brand name translation is of great significance.(written by--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

== References ==
Aaker, David. Managign Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name[M]. New York: Free Press, 1991.

Ban Gu 班固（2018）. 汉书[M] The Book of Han Dynasty. 郑州: 中州古籍出版社 Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Press, 860-862.

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. New York: Routledge, 2005.

Cao Zhao 曹昭（2006）. 品牌名翻译的目的与适应性研究[D] Study on the Purposes and Adaptability of Brand Name Translation. 西安电子科技大学 Xidian University.

Casgrand, J. B. The End of Translation [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1954(04): 330-340.

Doros Apollo, Zhou Zuoren阿波罗·多洛斯著，周作人译（2018）．希腊神话[M] Greek Mythology.长江出版社 Changjiang Press, 33-34.

Keller, Kevin. Strategic Brand Management[M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998.

Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture[M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Li Bai 李白（2009）. 李太白诗集[M] Poetry of Li Bai. China Book Bureau, 360-365.

Liu Jiuping 刘久平（2001）. 品牌名翻译与文化差异[J] Brand Name Translation and Cultural Differences. 广西大学学报 Journal of Guangxi University, 12: 117-119.

Lv Jun 吕俊（2004）. 论翻译研究的本体回归——对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J] The Return of the Noumenon of Translation Studies —— Reflections on “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University, 4: 53-59.

Peng Ping 彭萍（2016）. 当代西方翻译研究的“文化转向”和“社会转向”综述[J] Summary of “Cultural Turn” and “Social Turn” in Contemporary Western Translation Studies. 江西师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Jiangxi Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition), 3: 140-144.

Schmitt, B. H. Creating Local Brands in Multilingual International Markets[J]. Journal of Marketing Reserch, 2001(08): 313-325.
Wang Ning 王宁（2009）. 比较文学与翻译研究的文化转向[J] “Cultural Turn” in Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 5: 19-26.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振（2006）. 翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J] Comparative Literary Significance of “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 中国比较文学 Journal of Chinese Comparative Literature, 3: 1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong 曾文雄（2006）.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J] The Keys Problems and Way out of "Cultural Turn". 外语学刊Foreign Language Journal, 2: 90-96.

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Cult Turn EN 5

2021-12-14T14:06:07Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

='''Chapter 5 : An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn'''=
浅析“文化转向”原则下的品牌名翻译

李姗 Li Shan, Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract ==
Amid the deepening and widening of globalization, communications between different countries and regions have become increasingly frequent, particular in the sector of trade. Transnational corporations spring up like mushrooms. More and more brands are introduced inside and expanding outside. The first step of enterprises to expand overseas lies in the translation of the brand names. A good name foresees a good start. In this regard, cultural elements should be carefully taken into consideration in the process of translation.

This paper centers on the analysis of brand name translation in light of the principle of cultural turn. It could be divided into four parts in total. The first part is a brief introduction of the current international situation, and the purpose of this research. The second part is the short literature review in terms of both brand name translation and cultural turn. The third part is the main body of this paper, including the analysis of some successful cases of brand name translation as well as the analysis of failure ones. The last part is the summary of the whole and the significance of cultural turn in translation. Through this analysis, this paper aims to arouse people’s awareness of culture’s influence and urge them to pay more attention to cultural elements during the translation of brand names.

== Key Words ==
Cultural Turn; Brand Name Translation; Cross-culture Communication

== 摘要 ==
在全球化不断朝着纵深方向发展的背景下，不同国家和地区之间的各方面交流日益频繁，贸易行业尤其如此。跨国公司犹如雨后春笋，纷纷涌现，引进来和走出去的公司品牌越来越多。开拓外国新市场的第一步在于选取合适的品牌名。好的品牌名预示好的开始。而在翻译过程中，文化要素需要细心考量。

本文以文化转向为理论原则，以其为指导对品牌名的翻译进行分析研究。本文共包含四个部分。第一部分对当前国际现状以及研究目的进行了简要的介绍。第二部分是关于品牌名翻译和文化转向理论的文献综述。第三部分为本文的主体部分，对成功和失败的品牌名翻译进行了分析。最后一部分则概括总结本文所述内容，并阐述了翻译中文化转向的意义。通过对品牌名翻译进行简要分析研究，本文旨在激发人们翻译时的文化意识，在翻译品牌名时更多地关注文化要素。

== 关键词 ==
文化转向；品牌名翻译；跨文化交际

== Title ==
An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn

== Introduction ==
As each country in the world is woven tightly with one another and economic globalization has developed by leaps and bounds, communications and transactions between different countries as well as regions have become increasingly frequent. More and more brands begin to expand their market in foreign lands. To enter into a new territory, brands need to enhance their competitiveness, and more importantly to give the potential consumers a perfect first impression and thus make themselves mentally accepted and acknowledged by the potential clients of the targeted market. To have a good start, advertising is a good way to win a certain fame in a circle. But there is no doubt that the top priority lies in proper brand names as a matter of the fact that proper names could impress people with a surprise and then leave a deep and enduring imprint on their mind.

Guided by the policy of Reform and Opening-up, China has initiated One Belt and One Road proposal and is committed to promoting comprehensive cooperation in the range of globe, in addition to its active participation in various economic organizations. Beyond doubt, multi-national economic activities and collaborations will develop in depth and breadth. More and more brands will be introduced inside and go outside. Therefore, this paper decides to center on the subject of brand name translation. However, the reality has told us that economic activity is not merely an economic problem and translation is not an isolated activity. “It has to do with authority and legitimacy and, ultimately, with power. Translation is not just a ‘window opened on another world’, or some such pious platitude. Rather, translation is a channel opened, often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the native culture, challenge it, and even contribute to subverting it.” (Lefevere, 2003: 2) It is closely linked to history, politics and especially culture. Taking this into consideration, this paper desires to analyze the translation of brand names from the perspective of Cultural Turn, to figure out how cultural elements influence brand name translation so as to arouse brands’ awareness of cultural gap during their advertising activities.

== Literature Review ==
=== Literature Review on Brand Name Translation ===
Brand names are intangible assets of a company, carefully chosen and aimed at distinguishing itself from other rival brands and products. The same as our names represent our personality and show our originality, brand names play the role as the faces of the brands, in the very fact themselves being a part of the products of their brand (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 118). Original, novel and imaginary names could easily attract people’s attention, arouse their interests and ultimately promote the sales of products. To fulfill this supreme mission, transnational corporations and companies that prepare to expand foreign market would pay great attention to the translation of their brand names to fit in the cultural context of the target market. Consequently, the translation of brand names has drawn a lot of attention among a number of scholars and researchers.

In China, the first study regarding the translation of brand names can be traced back to the year of 1994, when Zhou Xiaobing has made a brief analysis of the brands names and classified four approaches to translating brand names against the background of China’s Reform and Opening-up (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 17). From then on, there has been several studies conducted in this aspect. However, it was since 2005 that respectively more scholars and researchers have their eyes turned to the translation of brand names. Among them, most researches are related to Skopos theory, for example the studies of Cao Zhao, who believed that the translation of brands names should be progressed in response to certain purposes. And some scholars centered around the guiding influence of functional equivalence on the translating process, such as Tian Yuxia and Du Shuling. In addition, some analyzed the translation of brand names from the perspective of culture, including Tang Degen, Liu Jiuping and Ai’ Supin cooperated with Cao Rong. Besides the perspectives mentioned above, there are also some studies conducted in terms of psychological theories, aesthetic principles of Xu Yuanchong and other approaches (Cao Zhao, 2006: 2).

At abroad, attention has long been paid to the function of brands as the development of marketing strategies. David Aaker has published his book of Managing Brand Equity in the year of 1991, which elaborates on how to create, market, develop and manage brands (Aaker, 1991: 20). Kevin Kelley in the book titled Strategic Brand Management offers the ways to construct brands, brand equity and brand management (Keller, 1998: 8). Both of the two books have emphasized the importance of having an excellent brand name and suggested the way to name a brand. As for the papers, there are a measure trove of them in the website. In them, Chow Clement has showed the dilemma of all marketers whether to translate the brand name into local language, while the cosmetic brand names of Iran were discussed; US brands in China were carefully analyzed to form a name translation model. Besides, Chao Paul has explored the strategies to translate brand names effectively by means of brand attitude reversal and perceived brand name translation relevance in an emerging market. Schmitt Bernd advocated to select the right brand name by carefully examining tacit and explicit linguistic knowledge in name translations (Schmitt, 2001: 314). All these papers have revealed that brand name translation is of some significance and worth of study.

=== Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory ===
Translation is not merely confined to the source language and target language, but also a social and cultural activity. Cultural elements must be carefully considered during the translating process. Since people from different nations all live in the same global village, it is of necessity to have frequent exchanges. Against the barrier of the tower of Babel, translators play the role of ladders, functioning as the bridge of effective communication between different linguistic groups. Thus, translators are actually not translating the two languages, but traveling back and forth within the two cultures (Casagrande, 1954: 338).

delete "social" of the 1st sentence_corrected by--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:43, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

After the second World War, against the background of hegemony and anti-hegemony, frequent communications across continents and countries, culture and across-culture communication have attracted more and more attention in the field of academic studies (Zeng Wenxiong, 2006: 92). As the beating power of deconstruction has greatly influenced structuralism linguistics, the former dominant linguistic approach to translation studies was shaking. The studies of text structure and meta-language has surrendered to the studies of discourse and the process of translation, which has exactly deepened the research of the cultural information of the text. The latter half of the 20th century has seen the combination of post-modern critical theories and the theory of deconstruction, thus offering a new approach to analyze translation. Different from mainly centering on the text analysis, more attention has been paid to the consideration of social, historical and cultural background of the correspondent time period. While conducting translation studies and putting forward translation principles, the academic community thus shifted their focus from merely language itself to the culture side. Then sprung two kinds of trends, the cultural turn of translation and the translation turn of literature (Lv Jun, 2004: 55).

Later twentieth century has witnessed the heat of studies of culture. In the 1970s, Israelite scholar Even-Zohar’s principle of Poly-system Theory together with Tory’s Descriptive Translation Studies have been regarded as the signs of the shift of translation to culture turn. However, cultural turn, in translation, is firstly put forward by Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere in their co-operated book Translation, History and Culture in the year of 1990 (Peng Ping, 2016: 140). In this book, they have elaborated on the power and influence of culture-related notions including history, authority and manipulation, and also narrated the aims and context of translation. Language, then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril (Bassnett, 2005: 23). Translation is not an arbitrary activity. It is conducted under certain principle and aimed to fulfill certain purpose. This paper is to elaborate on the translation of brand names with an emphasis on cultural elements.

== A Brief Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names Under Cultural Turn ==
Ever since the Industrial Revolution, commercialism rises up and all kinds of commodities appear one after another. The advances of economic globalization and cross-border transportation have also provided convenient access for foreign trade and business expansion. During the process of expansion, excellent brand names are for a certainty of great benefit to the brand’s further development.

change "rises" into rose/change "appear" into "appeared"_corrected by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:03, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Excellent Cases of Brand Name Translation ===
Focusing on our daily life, there are quite a few excellent translated brand names, which either use positive images, propitious words or contain rich cultural meanings.
==== The Use of Good Images ====
华硕 = Asus

“华硕”, a computer brand in China, its English name “Asus” comes from an ancient Greek myth. “Asus” is a part of “Pegasus”, which refers to a holy horse with wings. According to the myth, there is a woman named Medusa who is overly proud of her own beauty. That incurs the punishment of a goddess. She is turned into a dreadful enchantress and her golden long hair all become venomous snakes. Her glance at people would make petrified into stones. Then the hero Prometheus fights heavily against her and finally ended her life. Among her poisonous blood rises a holy horse with wings, running high above the sky. Thus, Pegasus the horse is commonly deemed as the symbol of creativity, virtue and beauty, especially referring to the novel thoughts of articles (Doros, 2018: 33). Through the use of this image, the brand presents a profile that its staff are creative and their aim is to bring better experience to users.

BWM = 宝马

The full name of the brand BWM is Bayerische Motoren Werke, which is short of the car plant. To make a stride in Chinese market, the brand chose “宝马” as its Chinese name, which in reality builds up a very impressive image for the brand. “宝” means something beautiful and precious, equaling to rare jewelry or great fortune. “马” is a beloved animal, which used to be the top transport tool for ancient Chinese people and when seeing this image, people may think of the legend that excellent horses can run very far and at a high speed. The combination of the two words impresses the idea that the cars of their brand are very pretty in its design and outlook, and also boast a good performance and high proficiency.

Land Rover = 路虎

Rover is a luxury car brand. And the word rover originally refers to an ancient nation in North Europe, renowned for courageous deeds. In English, the brand name constructs the picture that its cars are the same as those pioneering people who dare to counteract with any threat above the sea. Obviously, its Chinese version has successfully reproduced its original meaning. Although its ideal choice in the very beginning was “陆虎”, which was unfortunately pre-chosen by a rival. The present one is also very fantastic. “路” means the road, and “虎”, the tiger, a very strong and brave animal. As Land Rover specializes in off-road vehicles, the Chinese name “路虎” utterly shows its stance, a soldier of the road that no one would dare to or be able to hold back.

==== The Endowment of Rich Cultural Connotations ====
金典 = Satine

“金典” is one of the brands of Yili Industry Group Co., Ltd., a giant milk producer. "金" is gold in Chinese, showing that the milk boasts good quality. And "典" equals to classical, which means the taste of the milk is pure and authentic. This brand claims to be of high quality and aims at the high-end market, and in deed it occupies a large piece of pie in the plate of Chinese milk industry. As a high-end milk brand, the foreign name it chooses also shows its good taste. "Satine" is a French word, with the connotation of "as smooth as silk" (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 18). It implies that the milk boasts good quality and tastes silky, which runs in line with its orientation at middle and high-end market.

Revlon = 露华浓

Revlon is an American cosmetic brand, with foundation, lipstick and various make-up products on sale and young female users as its target consumers. Its Chinese name "露华浓", full of poetic meaning, actually comes from a poem written by a distinguished poet from Tang dynasty, named Li Bai. That poem utters a praise of the beauty of an imperial concubine, Miss Yang and she is one of the four great beauties in ancient China. The line that it comes from is “云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓”, which means when one sees the clouds in the sky, one would think of her gorgeous clothes; when one sees the flowers, one would think of her charming countenance; and the favor of the wind makes the flower even more beautiful. Through the device of metaphor, this poem vividly describes the extreme beauty of the dignified imperial concubine (Li Bai, 2009: 365). Therefore, when a cosmetic brand is connected with a poem that glorifies the beauty of a gorgeous woman, a good association is formed at ease. Therefore, the localized name of Revlon could easily attract females' attention in China and win their favor at the first sight.

Kiehl's = 科颜氏

As one of the most popular cosmetic brands in China, Kiehl's boast a good Chinese name. It was in the year of 2009 when this brand became a part of L' Oreal Group that it took the Chinese name of “科颜氏”. However, in the very beginning, it was called “契尔氏”, which could hardly trigger any related association. "科颜氏" may remind one of “神农氏”, a herborist who tastes all kinds of herbs in person to figure out their functions. And the brand shares a similar story since it stems from a pharmacy which sells unguents made up of natural plants in its early period. And at present, it advertises to be gentle and natural, free of stimulus and suitable to sensitive skins. In this regard, the two do share some common points. Thus, the association of the two would also add glory to the brand. "科" means scientific or science and "颜" means good appearance, the combination of the two would increase the sense of authority and leave consumers the impression that products of this brand would truly improve their outlook.

==== The Use of Novel Word Combinations ====
良品铺子 = Bestore

“良品铺子” is a famous Chinese snack brand familiar to almost everyone who is fond of snacks. The first two characters of the brand name means goods of high quality, and the latter two is the equivalent word for a shop or store in English. Its English translation is "Bestore", made up of "be" and "store". Through the word store, it makes the consumers clear about the types of its products on sale and the prefix "be" makes it cuter and a little bit special, distinguishing this brand from the ordinary unnamed stores (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 17). Thus, it may give people an impression of warmth and coziness, which completely corresponds with the image of a snack brand.

茶颜悦色 = Sexy Tea

Sexy Tea, an influential milk tea brand with its home located in Changsha city, Hunan province. The design of the brand is quaint, characteristic of ancient style. And the image of this brand is the pretty caricature of Lin Daiyu, a major figure of "Dream of the Red Chamber", one of the four Chinese classics. “茶颜” could be understood as the appearance or outlook of tea. “悦色” is a phrase that means a pretty and satisfying countenance or the act of satisfying people. In the translation, the words “sexy” and “tea” makes a very novel combination. “Tea” shows the nature of the brand, while the word “sexy” may easily trigger foreigners' attention and curiosity. How can a cup of milk tea be sexy? What would it taste like? Thus, this kind of emotion would persuade a number of foreign friends to have a try in its shops.

美加净 = Maxam

“美加净” is a time-honored cosmetic brand in China. Its selling point lies in the baby care products, though a lot of adult females have also been attracted by it. In Chinese culture, “美” means beauty, and “净” means cleanliness. The two are linked by the word “加”, which means plus. That is to say these products can make one's skin both beautiful and clean. The English name of Maxam has properly expressed this connotation. Maxam is similar to the word maximum both in sound and in spelling, thus, it opts to impress people as maximizing one's beauty to largest degree.

After a careful analysis of the successful brand names in the fields of car, food and cosmetics both in China and at abroad, we may make a summary of the common points that they share. First of all, positive images and words are preferred to constitute their names, most of which are combinations of adjectives and nouns that hold propitious senses. The association of pure verbs with fine connotations also offers great novelty and is of great appeal to the audience (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). What’s more, the translated brand names all possess good meaning in the cultural context of the target market, without any ambiguous or implicit reference to something negative in that culture. In addition, most brands would prefer to reveal the category of their products in their names. That makes it quite easy for the consumers to know their functions by a mere glimpse. The guidelines of these successful brand names would offer valuable experiences for the other brands.

=== Failure Cases of the Brand Name Translation ===
Besides those excellent cases, failure cases of brand name translation also abound in the global market.

==== The Misuse of Negative Images ====
白猫 = white cat

“白猫” is a producer of wash supplies. It occupies a large share of Chinese market and its existence could be caught in almost every store and supermarket. There is no doubt that a great number of people would be shocked to see that it is translated into White Cat directly. In western culture, cat is a negative image that is usually regarded as an evil creature in everyday life. For example, in Edgar Allen Poe’s short novel, the black cat is deemed by people as an incarnation of witches, the embodiment of evil forces. Though the color of white is the symbol for purity and faith, the cat image owns such a strong influence that the positive meaning of the former is easily offset in their combination.

白象 = White Elephant

“白象” is a Chinese supplier of battery. In Chinese culture, elephant boast the meaning of good luck. But after it is translated into English, it is literally named as White Elephant, which is definitely a failure case that should be avoided in the context of western culture. Because in English world, white elephant holds pretty negative meaning, referring to those flashy stuff that are elegant but useless (Cao Zhao, 2006: 20). Therefore, the brand name would leave people the impression that the battery the brand sells are the same as white elephants, expensive but not enduring.

==== The Ambiguous Pronunciation of Words ====
方太 = FOTILE

“方太” is a brand that specializes in manufacturing and selling household electrical appliances. There are two levels of meanings lying in this name. Firstly, when the brand was to intitle a new name, there was a heated TV show named as Fang Tai Food Square. The brand decided to take this name to attract people’s attention, especially those audience who are fond of that reality show. Secondly, “方太” can also be seen as the abbreviation of “方便太太”, that is, to bring convenience to the household wives. Obviously, the Chinese brand name shares many links with keeping kitchen clean as well as simplifying household duties. However, its translation is far from satisfying, not to mention expressing these implications. The sound of “FOTILE” is extremely similar to the pronunciation of the word “futile”. Therefore, it could be easily uttered in the wrong way and leaves a terrible impression on people’s mind. Few people would take the risk to purchase some appliance that seems to be “futile”.

Standard Chartered Bank = 渣打银行

Standard Chartered is an international bank with its headquarter located in Britain. It promises the service principle of “Here for good”. When it had its debut in Shanghai, China, it used “渣打” as its name. However, in Chinese, “渣” means dregs and “打”is a verb that means breaking up. The combination of the two fail to form a convincing image required for a bank. Except those who have certain knowledge about it, ordinary people would not list it as their hold-up vessel of money, as its name grants the bank little credit, far away from convincing.

Warsteiner = 沃斯乐/沃斯坦

Warsteiner is a time-honored and highly-welcomed beer producer in Germany. Warsteiner is named after the city where the beer is produced and it implies that the water used to produce the beer comes from the mountain spring, which is natural and clean (Woesler, Martin). But it boasts little fame in China, for it was translated into “沃斯乐” during its first entry into Chinese market. The pronunciation of that name is quite similar to "我死了" in Chinese. Death is a taboo word in Chinese culture, seldom referred in public, let alone related to a retailor brand. Even though it is renamed later, the present name 沃斯坦 still fails to arouse people's wide attention or strong interest in the broad market of China.

==== The Loss of Cultural Connotation ====
方正 = Founder

“方正” is a computer brand, invested by one of the top universities in China, Peking University in 1986. Its name is said to originate from a sentence of Biography of the Han Dynasty · Chao Cuo, that carefully examine others’ behavior so as not to misunderstand them, strictly abide by decrees without personal interests, do your utmost to accomplish the tasks delegated from the leaders without complaint; dare not the death even in face of dangers, do not occupy a position when there is someone more competitive than you, accept proper amount of gains in accordance with your efforts, and never stay on a position while you are not qualified, only those who possess all these virtues could be regarded as truly virtuous men (Ban Gu, 2018: 860). Here, “方正” is of rich cultural connotation and refers to virtuous deeds. However, its correspondent translation runs away from its original meaning. The word “founder” not only could refer to the pioneer of something, but also means the failure, breaking-down of something. In light of this, when the initial founder of this company was experiencing an emergent incident in 2000, foreign media bantered that “the Founder’s founder founders”. To avoid such teas, more attention should be paid to the translation of brand name.

DS (Deesse) = 谛艾仕

DS is a top luxury car brand in French auto industry, short of Déesse which means goddess. This brand received warmly welcome from government officials in France. But its translated Chinese brings it another picture in China. It neither expressed its original cultural meaning, nor integrated into Chinese culture. The name “谛艾仕” could hardly invoke any association of people towards splendid cars, as it was just mechanically translated in line with its pronunciation. Thus, cars of this brand are less seen in webs of transportation than BWM and Benz in China.

After the analysis of some failure cases of brand name translation, we may draw a brief conclusion about the causes that lead to their failure. Firstly, the failure lies in the misuse of improper images. Different culture has different cultural images. And the connotation that an image or object is endowed with may differ from country to country or culture to culture (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). Thus, great attention should be called when it comes to choose a name embodied with images. Secondly, the failure lies in the choice of words with ambiguous pronunciation. The words that share similar sounds with original characters may cause misunderstanding in another culture, since it could sound like another word that contains negative meaning. Thus, the desire to have links between original brand name and translated version could run counter to one's desire. Thirdly, the failure lies in the loss of cultural sense. Some name brands are taking on cultural elements that are confined in the source cultural context. But the translators merely frankly translate those names without a thought of conveying the deep-buried cultural meaning so that these brands fail to perform as well as expected. To avoid bad translations, the causes of them listed above deserve careful attention.

== Conclusion ==
Translation is not just a process that happens in the translator’s head. Readers decide to accept or reject translations (Lefevere, 2003: 5). Good translations keep the spirit without moving away from the letter. Bad translations render the letter without the spirit in a low and servile imitation. After a careful analysis of some brand name translations, the phrase “cultural turn” would be a great answer to the question of how to translate brand names. When we speak of “a culture” or “the receiving culture,” we would do well to remember that cultures are not monolithic entities, but that there is always a tension inside a culture between different groups, or individuals, who want to influence the evolution of that culture in the way they think best. Translations have been made with the intention of influencing the development of a culture (Lefevere, 2003: 8). That means more attention should be paid to the culture of the target language in the process of translation so as to gain expected response. In terms of brand name translation, cultural elements should be seriously taken into consideration. The constituent images and words should be carefully chosen and the pronunciation and implication of the names also need detailed examination in the context of targeted market. And it is easier to expand a new territory when a brand is shouldered local color.

Besides the benefit it brings to the brand, cultural turn in brand name translation also boasts other significance. Firstly, more attention to the consumers’ culture is a manifestation of taking the target consumers into consideration, thus, bring them a sense of being cared about; secondly, translated brand names themselves can be seen as cultural elements, contributing to people’s acquaintance with and understanding of the culture of another community, thus good for mutual understanding and cultural communications; thirdly, it is significant to the development of multi-culturalism since every culture is precious treasure in the world treasure-house of intellect and heritage, while some culture has been long in the dominant position and continuously posing threat to other cultures due to the disparity of political and economic forces (Xie Tianzhen, 2006: 12). More concern about and consideration of the culture of another community is necessary to eliminate and prevent cultural hegemony and supremacy. From this point of view, cultural turn in brand name translation is of great significance.(written by--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

== References ==
Aaker, David. Managign Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name[M]. New York: Free Press, 1991.

Ban Gu 班固（2018）. 汉书[M] The Book of Han Dynasty. 郑州: 中州古籍出版社 Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Press, 860-862.

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. New York: Routledge, 2005.

Cao Zhao 曹昭（2006）. 品牌名翻译的目的与适应性研究[D] Study on the Purposes and Adaptability of Brand Name Translation. 西安电子科技大学 Xidian University.

Casgrand, J. B. The End of Translation [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1954(04): 330-340.

Doros Apollo, Zhou Zuoren阿波罗·多洛斯著，周作人译（2018）．希腊神话[M] Greek Mythology.长江出版社 Changjiang Press, 33-34.

Keller, Kevin. Strategic Brand Management[M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998.

Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture[M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Li Bai 李白（2009）. 李太白诗集[M] Poetry of Li Bai. China Book Bureau, 360-365.

Liu Jiuping 刘久平（2001）. 品牌名翻译与文化差异[J] Brand Name Translation and Cultural Differences. 广西大学学报 Journal of Guangxi University, 12: 117-119.

Lv Jun 吕俊（2004）. 论翻译研究的本体回归——对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J] The Return of the Noumenon of Translation Studies —— Reflections on “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University, 4: 53-59.

Peng Ping 彭萍（2016）. 当代西方翻译研究的“文化转向”和“社会转向”综述[J] Summary of “Cultural Turn” and “Social Turn” in Contemporary Western Translation Studies. 江西师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Jiangxi Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition), 3: 140-144.

Schmitt, B. H. Creating Local Brands in Multilingual International Markets[J]. Journal of Marketing Reserch, 2001(08): 313-325.
Wang Ning 王宁（2009）. 比较文学与翻译研究的文化转向[J] “Cultural Turn” in Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 5: 19-26.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振（2006）. 翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J] Comparative Literary Significance of “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 中国比较文学 Journal of Chinese Comparative Literature, 3: 1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong 曾文雄（2006）.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J] The Keys Problems and Way out of "Cultural Turn". 外语学刊Foreign Language Journal, 2: 90-96.

Zhou Xiaobing 周小兵（1994）. 商品品牌译名分析[J] Analysis of Brand Name Translation of Commodities. 语文建设 Journal of Chinese Construction, 2: 17-19.

Cult Turn EN 5

2021-12-14T14:04:48Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* A Brief Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names Under Cultural Turn */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

='''Chapter 5 : An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn'''=
浅析“文化转向”原则下的品牌名翻译

李姗 Li Shan, Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract ==
Amid the deepening and widening of globalization, communications between different countries and regions have become increasingly frequent, particular in the sector of trade. Transnational corporations spring up like mushrooms. More and more brands are introduced inside and expanding outside. The first step of enterprises to expand overseas lies in the translation of the brand names. A good name foresees a good start. In this regard, cultural elements should be carefully taken into consideration in the process of translation.

This paper centers on the analysis of brand name translation in light of the principle of cultural turn. It could be divided into four parts in total. The first part is a brief introduction of the current international situation, and the purpose of this research. The second part is the short literature review in terms of both brand name translation and cultural turn. The third part is the main body of this paper, including the analysis of some successful cases of brand name translation as well as the analysis of failure ones. The last part is the summary of the whole and the significance of cultural turn in translation. Through this analysis, this paper aims to arouse people’s awareness of culture’s influence and urge them to pay more attention to cultural elements during the translation of brand names.

== Key Words ==
Cultural Turn; Brand Name Translation; Cross-culture Communication

== 摘要 ==
在全球化不断朝着纵深方向发展的背景下，不同国家和地区之间的各方面交流日益频繁，贸易行业尤其如此。跨国公司犹如雨后春笋，纷纷涌现，引进来和走出去的公司品牌越来越多。开拓外国新市场的第一步在于选取合适的品牌名。好的品牌名预示好的开始。而在翻译过程中，文化要素需要细心考量。

本文以文化转向为理论原则，以其为指导对品牌名的翻译进行分析研究。本文共包含四个部分。第一部分对当前国际现状以及研究目的进行了简要的介绍。第二部分是关于品牌名翻译和文化转向理论的文献综述。第三部分为本文的主体部分，对成功和失败的品牌名翻译进行了分析。最后一部分则概括总结本文所述内容，并阐述了翻译中文化转向的意义。通过对品牌名翻译进行简要分析研究，本文旨在激发人们翻译时的文化意识，在翻译品牌名时更多地关注文化要素。

== 关键词 ==
文化转向；品牌名翻译；跨文化交际

== Title ==
An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn

== Introduction ==
As each country in the world is woven tightly with one another and economic globalization has developed by leaps and bounds, communications and transactions between different countries as well as regions have become increasingly frequent. More and more brands begin to expand their market in foreign lands. To enter into a new territory, brands need to enhance their competitiveness, and more importantly to give the potential consumers a perfect first impression and thus make themselves mentally accepted and acknowledged by the potential clients of the targeted market. To have a good start, advertising is a good way to win a certain fame in a circle. But there is no doubt that the top priority lies in proper brand names as a matter of the fact that proper names could impress people with a surprise and then leave a deep and enduring imprint on their mind.

Guided by the policy of Reform and Opening-up, China has initiated One Belt and One Road proposal and is committed to promoting comprehensive cooperation in the range of globe, in addition to its active participation in various economic organizations. Beyond doubt, multi-national economic activities and collaborations will develop in depth and breadth. More and more brands will be introduced inside and go outside. Therefore, this paper decides to center on the subject of brand name translation. However, the reality has told us that economic activity is not merely an economic problem and translation is not an isolated activity. “It has to do with authority and legitimacy and, ultimately, with power. Translation is not just a ‘window opened on another world’, or some such pious platitude. Rather, translation is a channel opened, often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the native culture, challenge it, and even contribute to subverting it.” (Lefevere, 2003: 2) It is closely linked to history, politics and especially culture. Taking this into consideration, this paper desires to analyze the translation of brand names from the perspective of Cultural Turn, to figure out how cultural elements influence brand name translation so as to arouse brands’ awareness of cultural gap during their advertising activities.

== Literature Review ==
=== Literature Review on Brand Name Translation ===
Brand names are intangible assets of a company, carefully chosen and aimed at distinguishing itself from other rival brands and products. The same as our names represent our personality and show our originality, brand names play the role as the faces of the brands, in the very fact themselves being a part of the products of their brand (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 118). Original, novel and imaginary names could easily attract people’s attention, arouse their interests and ultimately promote the sales of products. To fulfill this supreme mission, transnational corporations and companies that prepare to expand foreign market would pay great attention to the translation of their brand names to fit in the cultural context of the target market. Consequently, the translation of brand names has drawn a lot of attention among a number of scholars and researchers.

In China, the first study regarding the translation of brand names can be traced back to the year of 1994, when Zhou Xiaobing has made a brief analysis of the brands names and classified four approaches to translating brand names against the background of China’s Reform and Opening-up (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 17). From then on, there has been several studies conducted in this aspect. However, it was since 2005 that respectively more scholars and researchers have their eyes turned to the translation of brand names. Among them, most researches are related to Skopos theory, for example the studies of Cao Zhao, who believed that the translation of brands names should be progressed in response to certain purposes. And some scholars centered around the guiding influence of functional equivalence on the translating process, such as Tian Yuxia and Du Shuling. In addition, some analyzed the translation of brand names from the perspective of culture, including Tang Degen, Liu Jiuping and Ai’ Supin cooperated with Cao Rong. Besides the perspectives mentioned above, there are also some studies conducted in terms of psychological theories, aesthetic principles of Xu Yuanchong and other approaches (Cao Zhao, 2006: 2).

At abroad, attention has long been paid to the function of brands as the development of marketing strategies. David Aaker has published his book of Managing Brand Equity in the year of 1991, which elaborates on how to create, market, develop and manage brands (Aaker, 1991: 20). Kevin Kelley in the book titled Strategic Brand Management offers the ways to construct brands, brand equity and brand management (Keller, 1998: 8). Both of the two books have emphasized the importance of having an excellent brand name and suggested the way to name a brand. As for the papers, there are a measure trove of them in the website. In them, Chow Clement has showed the dilemma of all marketers whether to translate the brand name into local language, while the cosmetic brand names of Iran were discussed; US brands in China were carefully analyzed to form a name translation model. Besides, Chao Paul has explored the strategies to translate brand names effectively by means of brand attitude reversal and perceived brand name translation relevance in an emerging market. Schmitt Bernd advocated to select the right brand name by carefully examining tacit and explicit linguistic knowledge in name translations (Schmitt, 2001: 314). All these papers have revealed that brand name translation is of some significance and worth of study.

=== Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory ===
Translation is not merely confined to the source language and target language, but also a social and cultural activity. Cultural elements must be carefully considered during the translating process. Since people from different nations all live in the same global village, it is of necessity to have frequent exchanges. Against the barrier of the tower of Babel, translators play the role of ladders, functioning as the bridge of effective communication between different linguistic groups. Thus, translators are actually not translating the two languages, but traveling back and forth within the two cultures (Casagrande, 1954: 338).

*delete "social" of the 1st sentence_corrected by--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:43, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

After the second World War, against the background of hegemony and anti-hegemony, frequent communications across continents and countries, culture and across-culture communication have attracted more and more attention in the field of academic studies (Zeng Wenxiong, 2006: 92). As the beating power of deconstruction has greatly influenced structuralism linguistics, the former dominant linguistic approach to translation studies was shaking. The studies of text structure and meta-language has surrendered to the studies of discourse and the process of translation, which has exactly deepened the research of the cultural information of the text. The latter half of the 20th century has seen the combination of post-modern critical theories and the theory of deconstruction, thus offering a new approach to analyze translation. Different from mainly centering on the text analysis, more attention has been paid to the consideration of social, historical and cultural background of the correspondent time period. While conducting translation studies and putting forward translation principles, the academic community thus shifted their focus from merely language itself to the culture side. Then sprung two kinds of trends, the cultural turn of translation and the translation turn of literature (Lv Jun, 2004: 55).

Later twentieth century has witnessed the heat of studies of culture. In the 1970s, Israelite scholar Even-Zohar’s principle of Poly-system Theory together with Tory’s Descriptive Translation Studies have been regarded as the signs of the shift of translation to culture turn. However, cultural turn, in translation, is firstly put forward by Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere in their co-operated book Translation, History and Culture in the year of 1990 (Peng Ping, 2016: 140). In this book, they have elaborated on the power and influence of culture-related notions including history, authority and manipulation, and also narrated the aims and context of translation. Language, then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril (Bassnett, 2005: 23). Translation is not an arbitrary activity. It is conducted under certain principle and aimed to fulfill certain purpose. This paper is to elaborate on the translation of brand names with an emphasis on cultural elements.

== A Brief Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names Under Cultural Turn ==
Ever since the Industrial Revolution, commercialism rises up and all kinds of commodities appear one after another. The advances of economic globalization and cross-border transportation have also provided convenient access for foreign trade and business expansion. During the process of expansion, excellent brand names are for a certainty of great benefit to the brand’s further development.

change "rises" into rose/change "appear" into "appeared"_corrected by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:03, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Excellent Cases of Brand Name Translation ===
Focusing on our daily life, there are quite a few excellent translated brand names, which either use positive images, propitious words or contain rich cultural meanings.
==== The Use of Good Images ====
华硕 = Asus

“华硕”, a computer brand in China, its English name “Asus” comes from an ancient Greek myth. “Asus” is a part of “Pegasus”, which refers to a holy horse with wings. According to the myth, there is a woman named Medusa who is overly proud of her own beauty. That incurs the punishment of a goddess. She is turned into a dreadful enchantress and her golden long hair all become venomous snakes. Her glance at people would make petrified into stones. Then the hero Prometheus fights heavily against her and finally ended her life. Among her poisonous blood rises a holy horse with wings, running high above the sky. Thus, Pegasus the horse is commonly deemed as the symbol of creativity, virtue and beauty, especially referring to the novel thoughts of articles (Doros, 2018: 33). Through the use of this image, the brand presents a profile that its staff are creative and their aim is to bring better experience to users.

BWM = 宝马

The full name of the brand BWM is Bayerische Motoren Werke, which is short of the car plant. To make a stride in Chinese market, the brand chose “宝马” as its Chinese name, which in reality builds up a very impressive image for the brand. “宝” means something beautiful and precious, equaling to rare jewelry or great fortune. “马” is a beloved animal, which used to be the top transport tool for ancient Chinese people and when seeing this image, people may think of the legend that excellent horses can run very far and at a high speed. The combination of the two words impresses the idea that the cars of their brand are very pretty in its design and outlook, and also boast a good performance and high proficiency.

Land Rover = 路虎

Rover is a luxury car brand. And the word rover originally refers to an ancient nation in North Europe, renowned for courageous deeds. In English, the brand name constructs the picture that its cars are the same as those pioneering people who dare to counteract with any threat above the sea. Obviously, its Chinese version has successfully reproduced its original meaning. Although its ideal choice in the very beginning was “陆虎”, which was unfortunately pre-chosen by a rival. The present one is also very fantastic. “路” means the road, and “虎”, the tiger, a very strong and brave animal. As Land Rover specializes in off-road vehicles, the Chinese name “路虎” utterly shows its stance, a soldier of the road that no one would dare to or be able to hold back.

==== The Endowment of Rich Cultural Connotations ====
金典 = Satine

“金典” is one of the brands of Yili Industry Group Co., Ltd., a giant milk producer. "金" is gold in Chinese, showing that the milk boasts good quality. And "典" equals to classical, which means the taste of the milk is pure and authentic. This brand claims to be of high quality and aims at the high-end market, and in deed it occupies a large piece of pie in the plate of Chinese milk industry. As a high-end milk brand, the foreign name it chooses also shows its good taste. "Satine" is a French word, with the connotation of "as smooth as silk" (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 18). It implies that the milk boasts good quality and tastes silky, which runs in line with its orientation at middle and high-end market.

Revlon = 露华浓

Revlon is an American cosmetic brand, with foundation, lipstick and various make-up products on sale and young female users as its target consumers. Its Chinese name "露华浓", full of poetic meaning, actually comes from a poem written by a distinguished poet from Tang dynasty, named Li Bai. That poem utters a praise of the beauty of an imperial concubine, Miss Yang and she is one of the four great beauties in ancient China. The line that it comes from is “云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓”, which means when one sees the clouds in the sky, one would think of her gorgeous clothes; when one sees the flowers, one would think of her charming countenance; and the favor of the wind makes the flower even more beautiful. Through the device of metaphor, this poem vividly describes the extreme beauty of the dignified imperial concubine (Li Bai, 2009: 365). Therefore, when a cosmetic brand is connected with a poem that glorifies the beauty of a gorgeous woman, a good association is formed at ease. Therefore, the localized name of Revlon could easily attract females' attention in China and win their favor at the first sight.

Kiehl's = 科颜氏

As one of the most popular cosmetic brands in China, Kiehl's boast a good Chinese name. It was in the year of 2009 when this brand became a part of L' Oreal Group that it took the Chinese name of “科颜氏”. However, in the very beginning, it was called “契尔氏”, which could hardly trigger any related association. "科颜氏" may remind one of “神农氏”, a herborist who tastes all kinds of herbs in person to figure out their functions. And the brand shares a similar story since it stems from a pharmacy which sells unguents made up of natural plants in its early period. And at present, it advertises to be gentle and natural, free of stimulus and suitable to sensitive skins. In this regard, the two do share some common points. Thus, the association of the two would also add glory to the brand. "科" means scientific or science and "颜" means good appearance, the combination of the two would increase the sense of authority and leave consumers the impression that products of this brand would truly improve their outlook.

==== The Use of Novel Word Combinations ====
良品铺子 = Bestore

“良品铺子” is a famous Chinese snack brand familiar to almost everyone who is fond of snacks. The first two characters of the brand name means goods of high quality, and the latter two is the equivalent word for a shop or store in English. Its English translation is "Bestore", made up of "be" and "store". Through the word store, it makes the consumers clear about the types of its products on sale and the prefix "be" makes it cuter and a little bit special, distinguishing this brand from the ordinary unnamed stores (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 17). Thus, it may give people an impression of warmth and coziness, which completely corresponds with the image of a snack brand.

茶颜悦色 = Sexy Tea

Sexy Tea, an influential milk tea brand with its home located in Changsha city, Hunan province. The design of the brand is quaint, characteristic of ancient style. And the image of this brand is the pretty caricature of Lin Daiyu, a major figure of "Dream of the Red Chamber", one of the four Chinese classics. “茶颜” could be understood as the appearance or outlook of tea. “悦色” is a phrase that means a pretty and satisfying countenance or the act of satisfying people. In the translation, the words “sexy” and “tea” makes a very novel combination. “Tea” shows the nature of the brand, while the word “sexy” may easily trigger foreigners' attention and curiosity. How can a cup of milk tea be sexy? What would it taste like? Thus, this kind of emotion would persuade a number of foreign friends to have a try in its shops.

美加净 = Maxam

“美加净” is a time-honored cosmetic brand in China. Its selling point lies in the baby care products, though a lot of adult females have also been attracted by it. In Chinese culture, “美” means beauty, and “净” means cleanliness. The two are linked by the word “加”, which means plus. That is to say these products can make one's skin both beautiful and clean. The English name of Maxam has properly expressed this connotation. Maxam is similar to the word maximum both in sound and in spelling, thus, it opts to impress people as maximizing one's beauty to largest degree.

After a careful analysis of the successful brand names in the fields of car, food and cosmetics both in China and at abroad, we may make a summary of the common points that they share. First of all, positive images and words are preferred to constitute their names, most of which are combinations of adjectives and nouns that hold propitious senses. The association of pure verbs with fine connotations also offers great novelty and is of great appeal to the audience (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). What’s more, the translated brand names all possess good meaning in the cultural context of the target market, without any ambiguous or implicit reference to something negative in that culture. In addition, most brands would prefer to reveal the category of their products in their names. That makes it quite easy for the consumers to know their functions by a mere glimpse. The guidelines of these successful brand names would offer valuable experiences for the other brands.

=== Failure Cases of the Brand Name Translation ===
Besides those excellent cases, failure cases of brand name translation also abound in the global market.

==== The Misuse of Negative Images ====
白猫 = white cat

“白猫” is a producer of wash supplies. It occupies a large share of Chinese market and its existence could be caught in almost every store and supermarket. There is no doubt that a great number of people would be shocked to see that it is translated into White Cat directly. In western culture, cat is a negative image that is usually regarded as an evil creature in everyday life. For example, in Edgar Allen Poe’s short novel, the black cat is deemed by people as an incarnation of witches, the embodiment of evil forces. Though the color of white is the symbol for purity and faith, the cat image owns such a strong influence that the positive meaning of the former is easily offset in their combination.

白象 = White Elephant

“白象” is a Chinese supplier of battery. In Chinese culture, elephant boast the meaning of good luck. But after it is translated into English, it is literally named as White Elephant, which is definitely a failure case that should be avoided in the context of western culture. Because in English world, white elephant holds pretty negative meaning, referring to those flashy stuff that are elegant but useless (Cao Zhao, 2006: 20). Therefore, the brand name would leave people the impression that the battery the brand sells are the same as white elephants, expensive but not enduring.

==== The Ambiguous Pronunciation of Words ====
方太 = FOTILE

“方太” is a brand that specializes in manufacturing and selling household electrical appliances. There are two levels of meanings lying in this name. Firstly, when the brand was to intitle a new name, there was a heated TV show named as Fang Tai Food Square. The brand decided to take this name to attract people’s attention, especially those audience who are fond of that reality show. Secondly, “方太” can also be seen as the abbreviation of “方便太太”, that is, to bring convenience to the household wives. Obviously, the Chinese brand name shares many links with keeping kitchen clean as well as simplifying household duties. However, its translation is far from satisfying, not to mention expressing these implications. The sound of “FOTILE” is extremely similar to the pronunciation of the word “futile”. Therefore, it could be easily uttered in the wrong way and leaves a terrible impression on people’s mind. Few people would take the risk to purchase some appliance that seems to be “futile”.

Standard Chartered Bank = 渣打银行

Standard Chartered is an international bank with its headquarter located in Britain. It promises the service principle of “Here for good”. When it had its debut in Shanghai, China, it used “渣打” as its name. However, in Chinese, “渣” means dregs and “打”is a verb that means breaking up. The combination of the two fail to form a convincing image required for a bank. Except those who have certain knowledge about it, ordinary people would not list it as their hold-up vessel of money, as its name grants the bank little credit, far away from convincing.

Warsteiner = 沃斯乐/沃斯坦

Warsteiner is a time-honored and highly-welcomed beer producer in Germany. Warsteiner is named after the city where the beer is produced and it implies that the water used to produce the beer comes from the mountain spring, which is natural and clean (Woesler, Martin). But it boasts little fame in China, for it was translated into “沃斯乐” during its first entry into Chinese market. The pronunciation of that name is quite similar to "我死了" in Chinese. Death is a taboo word in Chinese culture, seldom referred in public, let alone related to a retailor brand. Even though it is renamed later, the present name 沃斯坦 still fails to arouse people's wide attention or strong interest in the broad market of China.

==== The Loss of Cultural Connotation ====
方正 = Founder

“方正” is a computer brand, invested by one of the top universities in China, Peking University in 1986. Its name is said to originate from a sentence of Biography of the Han Dynasty · Chao Cuo, that carefully examine others’ behavior so as not to misunderstand them, strictly abide by decrees without personal interests, do your utmost to accomplish the tasks delegated from the leaders without complaint; dare not the death even in face of dangers, do not occupy a position when there is someone more competitive than you, accept proper amount of gains in accordance with your efforts, and never stay on a position while you are not qualified, only those who possess all these virtues could be regarded as truly virtuous men (Ban Gu, 2018: 860). Here, “方正” is of rich cultural connotation and refers to virtuous deeds. However, its correspondent translation runs away from its original meaning. The word “founder” not only could refer to the pioneer of something, but also means the failure, breaking-down of something. In light of this, when the initial founder of this company was experiencing an emergent incident in 2000, foreign media bantered that “the Founder’s founder founders”. To avoid such teas, more attention should be paid to the translation of brand name.

DS (Deesse) = 谛艾仕

DS is a top luxury car brand in French auto industry, short of Déesse which means goddess. This brand received warmly welcome from government officials in France. But its translated Chinese brings it another picture in China. It neither expressed its original cultural meaning, nor integrated into Chinese culture. The name “谛艾仕” could hardly invoke any association of people towards splendid cars, as it was just mechanically translated in line with its pronunciation. Thus, cars of this brand are less seen in webs of transportation than BWM and Benz in China.

After the analysis of some failure cases of brand name translation, we may draw a brief conclusion about the causes that lead to their failure. Firstly, the failure lies in the misuse of improper images. Different culture has different cultural images. And the connotation that an image or object is endowed with may differ from country to country or culture to culture (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). Thus, great attention should be called when it comes to choose a name embodied with images. Secondly, the failure lies in the choice of words with ambiguous pronunciation. The words that share similar sounds with original characters may cause misunderstanding in another culture, since it could sound like another word that contains negative meaning. Thus, the desire to have links between original brand name and translated version could run counter to one's desire. Thirdly, the failure lies in the loss of cultural sense. Some name brands are taking on cultural elements that are confined in the source cultural context. But the translators merely frankly translate those names without a thought of conveying the deep-buried cultural meaning so that these brands fail to perform as well as expected. To avoid bad translations, the causes of them listed above deserve careful attention.

== Conclusion ==
Translation is not just a process that happens in the translator’s head. Readers decide to accept or reject translations (Lefevere, 2003: 5). Good translations keep the spirit without moving away from the letter. Bad translations render the letter without the spirit in a low and servile imitation. After a careful analysis of some brand name translations, the phrase “cultural turn” would be a great answer to the question of how to translate brand names. When we speak of “a culture” or “the receiving culture,” we would do well to remember that cultures are not monolithic entities, but that there is always a tension inside a culture between different groups, or individuals, who want to influence the evolution of that culture in the way they think best. Translations have been made with the intention of influencing the development of a culture (Lefevere, 2003: 8). That means more attention should be paid to the culture of the target language in the process of translation so as to gain expected response. In terms of brand name translation, cultural elements should be seriously taken into consideration. The constituent images and words should be carefully chosen and the pronunciation and implication of the names also need detailed examination in the context of targeted market. And it is easier to expand a new territory when a brand is shouldered local color.

Besides the benefit it brings to the brand, cultural turn in brand name translation also boasts other significance. Firstly, more attention to the consumers’ culture is a manifestation of taking the target consumers into consideration, thus, bring them a sense of being cared about; secondly, translated brand names themselves can be seen as cultural elements, contributing to people’s acquaintance with and understanding of the culture of another community, thus good for mutual understanding and cultural communications; thirdly, it is significant to the development of multi-culturalism since every culture is precious treasure in the world treasure-house of intellect and heritage, while some culture has been long in the dominant position and continuously posing threat to other cultures due to the disparity of political and economic forces (Xie Tianzhen, 2006: 12). More concern about and consideration of the culture of another community is necessary to eliminate and prevent cultural hegemony and supremacy. From this point of view, cultural turn in brand name translation is of great significance.(written by--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

== References ==
Aaker, David. Managign Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name[M]. New York: Free Press, 1991.

Ban Gu 班固（2018）. 汉书[M] The Book of Han Dynasty. 郑州: 中州古籍出版社 Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Press, 860-862.

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. New York: Routledge, 2005.

Cao Zhao 曹昭（2006）. 品牌名翻译的目的与适应性研究[D] Study on the Purposes and Adaptability of Brand Name Translation. 西安电子科技大学 Xidian University.

Casgrand, J. B. The End of Translation [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1954(04): 330-340.

Doros Apollo, Zhou Zuoren阿波罗·多洛斯著，周作人译（2018）．希腊神话[M] Greek Mythology.长江出版社 Changjiang Press, 33-34.

Keller, Kevin. Strategic Brand Management[M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998.

Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture[M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Li Bai 李白（2009）. 李太白诗集[M] Poetry of Li Bai. China Book Bureau, 360-365.

Liu Jiuping 刘久平（2001）. 品牌名翻译与文化差异[J] Brand Name Translation and Cultural Differences. 广西大学学报 Journal of Guangxi University, 12: 117-119.

Lv Jun 吕俊（2004）. 论翻译研究的本体回归——对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J] The Return of the Noumenon of Translation Studies —— Reflections on “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University, 4: 53-59.

Peng Ping 彭萍（2016）. 当代西方翻译研究的“文化转向”和“社会转向”综述[J] Summary of “Cultural Turn” and “Social Turn” in Contemporary Western Translation Studies. 江西师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Jiangxi Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition), 3: 140-144.

Schmitt, B. H. Creating Local Brands in Multilingual International Markets[J]. Journal of Marketing Reserch, 2001(08): 313-325.
Wang Ning 王宁（2009）. 比较文学与翻译研究的文化转向[J] “Cultural Turn” in Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 5: 19-26.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振（2006）. 翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J] Comparative Literary Significance of “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 中国比较文学 Journal of Chinese Comparative Literature, 3: 1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong 曾文雄（2006）.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J] The Keys Problems and Way out of "Cultural Turn". 外语学刊Foreign Language Journal, 2: 90-96.

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Cult Turn EN 5

2021-12-14T14:03:27Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* A Brief Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names Under Cultural Turn */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

='''Chapter 5 : An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn'''=
浅析“文化转向”原则下的品牌名翻译

李姗 Li Shan, Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract ==
Amid the deepening and widening of globalization, communications between different countries and regions have become increasingly frequent, particular in the sector of trade. Transnational corporations spring up like mushrooms. More and more brands are introduced inside and expanding outside. The first step of enterprises to expand overseas lies in the translation of the brand names. A good name foresees a good start. In this regard, cultural elements should be carefully taken into consideration in the process of translation.

This paper centers on the analysis of brand name translation in light of the principle of cultural turn. It could be divided into four parts in total. The first part is a brief introduction of the current international situation, and the purpose of this research. The second part is the short literature review in terms of both brand name translation and cultural turn. The third part is the main body of this paper, including the analysis of some successful cases of brand name translation as well as the analysis of failure ones. The last part is the summary of the whole and the significance of cultural turn in translation. Through this analysis, this paper aims to arouse people’s awareness of culture’s influence and urge them to pay more attention to cultural elements during the translation of brand names.

== Key Words ==
Cultural Turn; Brand Name Translation; Cross-culture Communication

== 摘要 ==
在全球化不断朝着纵深方向发展的背景下，不同国家和地区之间的各方面交流日益频繁，贸易行业尤其如此。跨国公司犹如雨后春笋，纷纷涌现，引进来和走出去的公司品牌越来越多。开拓外国新市场的第一步在于选取合适的品牌名。好的品牌名预示好的开始。而在翻译过程中，文化要素需要细心考量。

本文以文化转向为理论原则，以其为指导对品牌名的翻译进行分析研究。本文共包含四个部分。第一部分对当前国际现状以及研究目的进行了简要的介绍。第二部分是关于品牌名翻译和文化转向理论的文献综述。第三部分为本文的主体部分，对成功和失败的品牌名翻译进行了分析。最后一部分则概括总结本文所述内容，并阐述了翻译中文化转向的意义。通过对品牌名翻译进行简要分析研究，本文旨在激发人们翻译时的文化意识，在翻译品牌名时更多地关注文化要素。

== 关键词 ==
文化转向；品牌名翻译；跨文化交际

== Title ==
An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn

== Introduction ==
As each country in the world is woven tightly with one another and economic globalization has developed by leaps and bounds, communications and transactions between different countries as well as regions have become increasingly frequent. More and more brands begin to expand their market in foreign lands. To enter into a new territory, brands need to enhance their competitiveness, and more importantly to give the potential consumers a perfect first impression and thus make themselves mentally accepted and acknowledged by the potential clients of the targeted market. To have a good start, advertising is a good way to win a certain fame in a circle. But there is no doubt that the top priority lies in proper brand names as a matter of the fact that proper names could impress people with a surprise and then leave a deep and enduring imprint on their mind.

Guided by the policy of Reform and Opening-up, China has initiated One Belt and One Road proposal and is committed to promoting comprehensive cooperation in the range of globe, in addition to its active participation in various economic organizations. Beyond doubt, multi-national economic activities and collaborations will develop in depth and breadth. More and more brands will be introduced inside and go outside. Therefore, this paper decides to center on the subject of brand name translation. However, the reality has told us that economic activity is not merely an economic problem and translation is not an isolated activity. “It has to do with authority and legitimacy and, ultimately, with power. Translation is not just a ‘window opened on another world’, or some such pious platitude. Rather, translation is a channel opened, often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the native culture, challenge it, and even contribute to subverting it.” (Lefevere, 2003: 2) It is closely linked to history, politics and especially culture. Taking this into consideration, this paper desires to analyze the translation of brand names from the perspective of Cultural Turn, to figure out how cultural elements influence brand name translation so as to arouse brands’ awareness of cultural gap during their advertising activities.

== Literature Review ==
=== Literature Review on Brand Name Translation ===
Brand names are intangible assets of a company, carefully chosen and aimed at distinguishing itself from other rival brands and products. The same as our names represent our personality and show our originality, brand names play the role as the faces of the brands, in the very fact themselves being a part of the products of their brand (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 118). Original, novel and imaginary names could easily attract people’s attention, arouse their interests and ultimately promote the sales of products. To fulfill this supreme mission, transnational corporations and companies that prepare to expand foreign market would pay great attention to the translation of their brand names to fit in the cultural context of the target market. Consequently, the translation of brand names has drawn a lot of attention among a number of scholars and researchers.

In China, the first study regarding the translation of brand names can be traced back to the year of 1994, when Zhou Xiaobing has made a brief analysis of the brands names and classified four approaches to translating brand names against the background of China’s Reform and Opening-up (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 17). From then on, there has been several studies conducted in this aspect. However, it was since 2005 that respectively more scholars and researchers have their eyes turned to the translation of brand names. Among them, most researches are related to Skopos theory, for example the studies of Cao Zhao, who believed that the translation of brands names should be progressed in response to certain purposes. And some scholars centered around the guiding influence of functional equivalence on the translating process, such as Tian Yuxia and Du Shuling. In addition, some analyzed the translation of brand names from the perspective of culture, including Tang Degen, Liu Jiuping and Ai’ Supin cooperated with Cao Rong. Besides the perspectives mentioned above, there are also some studies conducted in terms of psychological theories, aesthetic principles of Xu Yuanchong and other approaches (Cao Zhao, 2006: 2).

At abroad, attention has long been paid to the function of brands as the development of marketing strategies. David Aaker has published his book of Managing Brand Equity in the year of 1991, which elaborates on how to create, market, develop and manage brands (Aaker, 1991: 20). Kevin Kelley in the book titled Strategic Brand Management offers the ways to construct brands, brand equity and brand management (Keller, 1998: 8). Both of the two books have emphasized the importance of having an excellent brand name and suggested the way to name a brand. As for the papers, there are a measure trove of them in the website. In them, Chow Clement has showed the dilemma of all marketers whether to translate the brand name into local language, while the cosmetic brand names of Iran were discussed; US brands in China were carefully analyzed to form a name translation model. Besides, Chao Paul has explored the strategies to translate brand names effectively by means of brand attitude reversal and perceived brand name translation relevance in an emerging market. Schmitt Bernd advocated to select the right brand name by carefully examining tacit and explicit linguistic knowledge in name translations (Schmitt, 2001: 314). All these papers have revealed that brand name translation is of some significance and worth of study.

=== Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory ===
Translation is not merely confined to the source language and target language, but also a social and cultural activity. Cultural elements must be carefully considered during the translating process. Since people from different nations all live in the same global village, it is of necessity to have frequent exchanges. Against the barrier of the tower of Babel, translators play the role of ladders, functioning as the bridge of effective communication between different linguistic groups. Thus, translators are actually not translating the two languages, but traveling back and forth within the two cultures (Casagrande, 1954: 338).

*delete "social" of the 1st sentence_corrected by--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:43, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

After the second World War, against the background of hegemony and anti-hegemony, frequent communications across continents and countries, culture and across-culture communication have attracted more and more attention in the field of academic studies (Zeng Wenxiong, 2006: 92). As the beating power of deconstruction has greatly influenced structuralism linguistics, the former dominant linguistic approach to translation studies was shaking. The studies of text structure and meta-language has surrendered to the studies of discourse and the process of translation, which has exactly deepened the research of the cultural information of the text. The latter half of the 20th century has seen the combination of post-modern critical theories and the theory of deconstruction, thus offering a new approach to analyze translation. Different from mainly centering on the text analysis, more attention has been paid to the consideration of social, historical and cultural background of the correspondent time period. While conducting translation studies and putting forward translation principles, the academic community thus shifted their focus from merely language itself to the culture side. Then sprung two kinds of trends, the cultural turn of translation and the translation turn of literature (Lv Jun, 2004: 55).

Later twentieth century has witnessed the heat of studies of culture. In the 1970s, Israelite scholar Even-Zohar’s principle of Poly-system Theory together with Tory’s Descriptive Translation Studies have been regarded as the signs of the shift of translation to culture turn. However, cultural turn, in translation, is firstly put forward by Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere in their co-operated book Translation, History and Culture in the year of 1990 (Peng Ping, 2016: 140). In this book, they have elaborated on the power and influence of culture-related notions including history, authority and manipulation, and also narrated the aims and context of translation. Language, then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril (Bassnett, 2005: 23). Translation is not an arbitrary activity. It is conducted under certain principle and aimed to fulfill certain purpose. This paper is to elaborate on the translation of brand names with an emphasis on cultural elements.

== A Brief Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names Under Cultural Turn ==
Ever since the Industrial Revolution, commercialism rises up and all kinds of commodities appear one after another. The advances of economic globalization and cross-border transportation have also provided convenient access for foreign trade and business expansion. During the process of expansion, excellent brand names are for a certainty of great benefit to the brand’s further development.

*change "rises" into rose/change "appear" into "appeared"_corrected by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:03, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Excellent Cases of Brand Name Translation ===
Focusing on our daily life, there are quite a few excellent translated brand names, which either use positive images, propitious words or contain rich cultural meanings.
==== The Use of Good Images ====
华硕 = Asus

“华硕”, a computer brand in China, its English name “Asus” comes from an ancient Greek myth. “Asus” is a part of “Pegasus”, which refers to a holy horse with wings. According to the myth, there is a woman named Medusa who is overly proud of her own beauty. That incurs the punishment of a goddess. She is turned into a dreadful enchantress and her golden long hair all become venomous snakes. Her glance at people would make petrified into stones. Then the hero Prometheus fights heavily against her and finally ended her life. Among her poisonous blood rises a holy horse with wings, running high above the sky. Thus, Pegasus the horse is commonly deemed as the symbol of creativity, virtue and beauty, especially referring to the novel thoughts of articles (Doros, 2018: 33). Through the use of this image, the brand presents a profile that its staff are creative and their aim is to bring better experience to users.

BWM = 宝马

The full name of the brand BWM is Bayerische Motoren Werke, which is short of the car plant. To make a stride in Chinese market, the brand chose “宝马” as its Chinese name, which in reality builds up a very impressive image for the brand. “宝” means something beautiful and precious, equaling to rare jewelry or great fortune. “马” is a beloved animal, which used to be the top transport tool for ancient Chinese people and when seeing this image, people may think of the legend that excellent horses can run very far and at a high speed. The combination of the two words impresses the idea that the cars of their brand are very pretty in its design and outlook, and also boast a good performance and high proficiency.

Land Rover = 路虎

Rover is a luxury car brand. And the word rover originally refers to an ancient nation in North Europe, renowned for courageous deeds. In English, the brand name constructs the picture that its cars are the same as those pioneering people who dare to counteract with any threat above the sea. Obviously, its Chinese version has successfully reproduced its original meaning. Although its ideal choice in the very beginning was “陆虎”, which was unfortunately pre-chosen by a rival. The present one is also very fantastic. “路” means the road, and “虎”, the tiger, a very strong and brave animal. As Land Rover specializes in off-road vehicles, the Chinese name “路虎” utterly shows its stance, a soldier of the road that no one would dare to or be able to hold back.

==== The Endowment of Rich Cultural Connotations ====
金典 = Satine

“金典” is one of the brands of Yili Industry Group Co., Ltd., a giant milk producer. "金" is gold in Chinese, showing that the milk boasts good quality. And "典" equals to classical, which means the taste of the milk is pure and authentic. This brand claims to be of high quality and aims at the high-end market, and in deed it occupies a large piece of pie in the plate of Chinese milk industry. As a high-end milk brand, the foreign name it chooses also shows its good taste. "Satine" is a French word, with the connotation of "as smooth as silk" (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 18). It implies that the milk boasts good quality and tastes silky, which runs in line with its orientation at middle and high-end market.

Revlon = 露华浓

Revlon is an American cosmetic brand, with foundation, lipstick and various make-up products on sale and young female users as its target consumers. Its Chinese name "露华浓", full of poetic meaning, actually comes from a poem written by a distinguished poet from Tang dynasty, named Li Bai. That poem utters a praise of the beauty of an imperial concubine, Miss Yang and she is one of the four great beauties in ancient China. The line that it comes from is “云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓”, which means when one sees the clouds in the sky, one would think of her gorgeous clothes; when one sees the flowers, one would think of her charming countenance; and the favor of the wind makes the flower even more beautiful. Through the device of metaphor, this poem vividly describes the extreme beauty of the dignified imperial concubine (Li Bai, 2009: 365). Therefore, when a cosmetic brand is connected with a poem that glorifies the beauty of a gorgeous woman, a good association is formed at ease. Therefore, the localized name of Revlon could easily attract females' attention in China and win their favor at the first sight.

Kiehl's = 科颜氏

As one of the most popular cosmetic brands in China, Kiehl's boast a good Chinese name. It was in the year of 2009 when this brand became a part of L' Oreal Group that it took the Chinese name of “科颜氏”. However, in the very beginning, it was called “契尔氏”, which could hardly trigger any related association. "科颜氏" may remind one of “神农氏”, a herborist who tastes all kinds of herbs in person to figure out their functions. And the brand shares a similar story since it stems from a pharmacy which sells unguents made up of natural plants in its early period. And at present, it advertises to be gentle and natural, free of stimulus and suitable to sensitive skins. In this regard, the two do share some common points. Thus, the association of the two would also add glory to the brand. "科" means scientific or science and "颜" means good appearance, the combination of the two would increase the sense of authority and leave consumers the impression that products of this brand would truly improve their outlook.

==== The Use of Novel Word Combinations ====
良品铺子 = Bestore

“良品铺子” is a famous Chinese snack brand familiar to almost everyone who is fond of snacks. The first two characters of the brand name means goods of high quality, and the latter two is the equivalent word for a shop or store in English. Its English translation is "Bestore", made up of "be" and "store". Through the word store, it makes the consumers clear about the types of its products on sale and the prefix "be" makes it cuter and a little bit special, distinguishing this brand from the ordinary unnamed stores (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 17). Thus, it may give people an impression of warmth and coziness, which completely corresponds with the image of a snack brand.

茶颜悦色 = Sexy Tea

Sexy Tea, an influential milk tea brand with its home located in Changsha city, Hunan province. The design of the brand is quaint, characteristic of ancient style. And the image of this brand is the pretty caricature of Lin Daiyu, a major figure of "Dream of the Red Chamber", one of the four Chinese classics. “茶颜” could be understood as the appearance or outlook of tea. “悦色” is a phrase that means a pretty and satisfying countenance or the act of satisfying people. In the translation, the words “sexy” and “tea” makes a very novel combination. “Tea” shows the nature of the brand, while the word “sexy” may easily trigger foreigners' attention and curiosity. How can a cup of milk tea be sexy? What would it taste like? Thus, this kind of emotion would persuade a number of foreign friends to have a try in its shops.

美加净 = Maxam

“美加净” is a time-honored cosmetic brand in China. Its selling point lies in the baby care products, though a lot of adult females have also been attracted by it. In Chinese culture, “美” means beauty, and “净” means cleanliness. The two are linked by the word “加”, which means plus. That is to say these products can make one's skin both beautiful and clean. The English name of Maxam has properly expressed this connotation. Maxam is similar to the word maximum both in sound and in spelling, thus, it opts to impress people as maximizing one's beauty to largest degree.

After a careful analysis of the successful brand names in the fields of car, food and cosmetics both in China and at abroad, we may make a summary of the common points that they share. First of all, positive images and words are preferred to constitute their names, most of which are combinations of adjectives and nouns that hold propitious senses. The association of pure verbs with fine connotations also offers great novelty and is of great appeal to the audience (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). What’s more, the translated brand names all possess good meaning in the cultural context of the target market, without any ambiguous or implicit reference to something negative in that culture. In addition, most brands would prefer to reveal the category of their products in their names. That makes it quite easy for the consumers to know their functions by a mere glimpse. The guidelines of these successful brand names would offer valuable experiences for the other brands.

=== Failure Cases of the Brand Name Translation ===
Besides those excellent cases, failure cases of brand name translation also abound in the global market.

==== The Misuse of Negative Images ====
白猫 = white cat

“白猫” is a producer of wash supplies. It occupies a large share of Chinese market and its existence could be caught in almost every store and supermarket. There is no doubt that a great number of people would be shocked to see that it is translated into White Cat directly. In western culture, cat is a negative image that is usually regarded as an evil creature in everyday life. For example, in Edgar Allen Poe’s short novel, the black cat is deemed by people as an incarnation of witches, the embodiment of evil forces. Though the color of white is the symbol for purity and faith, the cat image owns such a strong influence that the positive meaning of the former is easily offset in their combination.

白象 = White Elephant

“白象” is a Chinese supplier of battery. In Chinese culture, elephant boast the meaning of good luck. But after it is translated into English, it is literally named as White Elephant, which is definitely a failure case that should be avoided in the context of western culture. Because in English world, white elephant holds pretty negative meaning, referring to those flashy stuff that are elegant but useless (Cao Zhao, 2006: 20). Therefore, the brand name would leave people the impression that the battery the brand sells are the same as white elephants, expensive but not enduring.

==== The Ambiguous Pronunciation of Words ====
方太 = FOTILE

“方太” is a brand that specializes in manufacturing and selling household electrical appliances. There are two levels of meanings lying in this name. Firstly, when the brand was to intitle a new name, there was a heated TV show named as Fang Tai Food Square. The brand decided to take this name to attract people’s attention, especially those audience who are fond of that reality show. Secondly, “方太” can also be seen as the abbreviation of “方便太太”, that is, to bring convenience to the household wives. Obviously, the Chinese brand name shares many links with keeping kitchen clean as well as simplifying household duties. However, its translation is far from satisfying, not to mention expressing these implications. The sound of “FOTILE” is extremely similar to the pronunciation of the word “futile”. Therefore, it could be easily uttered in the wrong way and leaves a terrible impression on people’s mind. Few people would take the risk to purchase some appliance that seems to be “futile”.

Standard Chartered Bank = 渣打银行

Standard Chartered is an international bank with its headquarter located in Britain. It promises the service principle of “Here for good”. When it had its debut in Shanghai, China, it used “渣打” as its name. However, in Chinese, “渣” means dregs and “打”is a verb that means breaking up. The combination of the two fail to form a convincing image required for a bank. Except those who have certain knowledge about it, ordinary people would not list it as their hold-up vessel of money, as its name grants the bank little credit, far away from convincing.

Warsteiner = 沃斯乐/沃斯坦

Warsteiner is a time-honored and highly-welcomed beer producer in Germany. Warsteiner is named after the city where the beer is produced and it implies that the water used to produce the beer comes from the mountain spring, which is natural and clean (Woesler, Martin). But it boasts little fame in China, for it was translated into “沃斯乐” during its first entry into Chinese market. The pronunciation of that name is quite similar to "我死了" in Chinese. Death is a taboo word in Chinese culture, seldom referred in public, let alone related to a retailor brand. Even though it is renamed later, the present name 沃斯坦 still fails to arouse people's wide attention or strong interest in the broad market of China.

==== The Loss of Cultural Connotation ====
方正 = Founder

“方正” is a computer brand, invested by one of the top universities in China, Peking University in 1986. Its name is said to originate from a sentence of Biography of the Han Dynasty · Chao Cuo, that carefully examine others’ behavior so as not to misunderstand them, strictly abide by decrees without personal interests, do your utmost to accomplish the tasks delegated from the leaders without complaint; dare not the death even in face of dangers, do not occupy a position when there is someone more competitive than you, accept proper amount of gains in accordance with your efforts, and never stay on a position while you are not qualified, only those who possess all these virtues could be regarded as truly virtuous men (Ban Gu, 2018: 860). Here, “方正” is of rich cultural connotation and refers to virtuous deeds. However, its correspondent translation runs away from its original meaning. The word “founder” not only could refer to the pioneer of something, but also means the failure, breaking-down of something. In light of this, when the initial founder of this company was experiencing an emergent incident in 2000, foreign media bantered that “the Founder’s founder founders”. To avoid such teas, more attention should be paid to the translation of brand name.

DS (Deesse) = 谛艾仕

DS is a top luxury car brand in French auto industry, short of Déesse which means goddess. This brand received warmly welcome from government officials in France. But its translated Chinese brings it another picture in China. It neither expressed its original cultural meaning, nor integrated into Chinese culture. The name “谛艾仕” could hardly invoke any association of people towards splendid cars, as it was just mechanically translated in line with its pronunciation. Thus, cars of this brand are less seen in webs of transportation than BWM and Benz in China.

After the analysis of some failure cases of brand name translation, we may draw a brief conclusion about the causes that lead to their failure. Firstly, the failure lies in the misuse of improper images. Different culture has different cultural images. And the connotation that an image or object is endowed with may differ from country to country or culture to culture (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). Thus, great attention should be called when it comes to choose a name embodied with images. Secondly, the failure lies in the choice of words with ambiguous pronunciation. The words that share similar sounds with original characters may cause misunderstanding in another culture, since it could sound like another word that contains negative meaning. Thus, the desire to have links between original brand name and translated version could run counter to one's desire. Thirdly, the failure lies in the loss of cultural sense. Some name brands are taking on cultural elements that are confined in the source cultural context. But the translators merely frankly translate those names without a thought of conveying the deep-buried cultural meaning so that these brands fail to perform as well as expected. To avoid bad translations, the causes of them listed above deserve careful attention.

== Conclusion ==
Translation is not just a process that happens in the translator’s head. Readers decide to accept or reject translations (Lefevere, 2003: 5). Good translations keep the spirit without moving away from the letter. Bad translations render the letter without the spirit in a low and servile imitation. After a careful analysis of some brand name translations, the phrase “cultural turn” would be a great answer to the question of how to translate brand names. When we speak of “a culture” or “the receiving culture,” we would do well to remember that cultures are not monolithic entities, but that there is always a tension inside a culture between different groups, or individuals, who want to influence the evolution of that culture in the way they think best. Translations have been made with the intention of influencing the development of a culture (Lefevere, 2003: 8). That means more attention should be paid to the culture of the target language in the process of translation so as to gain expected response. In terms of brand name translation, cultural elements should be seriously taken into consideration. The constituent images and words should be carefully chosen and the pronunciation and implication of the names also need detailed examination in the context of targeted market. And it is easier to expand a new territory when a brand is shouldered local color.

Besides the benefit it brings to the brand, cultural turn in brand name translation also boasts other significance. Firstly, more attention to the consumers’ culture is a manifestation of taking the target consumers into consideration, thus, bring them a sense of being cared about; secondly, translated brand names themselves can be seen as cultural elements, contributing to people’s acquaintance with and understanding of the culture of another community, thus good for mutual understanding and cultural communications; thirdly, it is significant to the development of multi-culturalism since every culture is precious treasure in the world treasure-house of intellect and heritage, while some culture has been long in the dominant position and continuously posing threat to other cultures due to the disparity of political and economic forces (Xie Tianzhen, 2006: 12). More concern about and consideration of the culture of another community is necessary to eliminate and prevent cultural hegemony and supremacy. From this point of view, cultural turn in brand name translation is of great significance.(written by--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

== References ==
Aaker, David. Managign Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name[M]. New York: Free Press, 1991.

Ban Gu 班固（2018）. 汉书[M] The Book of Han Dynasty. 郑州: 中州古籍出版社 Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Press, 860-862.

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. New York: Routledge, 2005.

Cao Zhao 曹昭（2006）. 品牌名翻译的目的与适应性研究[D] Study on the Purposes and Adaptability of Brand Name Translation. 西安电子科技大学 Xidian University.

Casgrand, J. B. The End of Translation [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1954(04): 330-340.

Doros Apollo, Zhou Zuoren阿波罗·多洛斯著，周作人译（2018）．希腊神话[M] Greek Mythology.长江出版社 Changjiang Press, 33-34.

Keller, Kevin. Strategic Brand Management[M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998.

Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture[M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Li Bai 李白（2009）. 李太白诗集[M] Poetry of Li Bai. China Book Bureau, 360-365.

Liu Jiuping 刘久平（2001）. 品牌名翻译与文化差异[J] Brand Name Translation and Cultural Differences. 广西大学学报 Journal of Guangxi University, 12: 117-119.

Lv Jun 吕俊（2004）. 论翻译研究的本体回归——对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J] The Return of the Noumenon of Translation Studies —— Reflections on “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University, 4: 53-59.

Peng Ping 彭萍（2016）. 当代西方翻译研究的“文化转向”和“社会转向”综述[J] Summary of “Cultural Turn” and “Social Turn” in Contemporary Western Translation Studies. 江西师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Jiangxi Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition), 3: 140-144.

Schmitt, B. H. Creating Local Brands in Multilingual International Markets[J]. Journal of Marketing Reserch, 2001(08): 313-325.
Wang Ning 王宁（2009）. 比较文学与翻译研究的文化转向[J] “Cultural Turn” in Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 5: 19-26.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振（2006）. 翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J] Comparative Literary Significance of “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 中国比较文学 Journal of Chinese Comparative Literature, 3: 1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong 曾文雄（2006）.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J] The Keys Problems and Way out of "Cultural Turn". 外语学刊Foreign Language Journal, 2: 90-96.

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Cult Turn EN 5

2021-12-14T13:43:46Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

='''Chapter 5 : An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn'''=
浅析“文化转向”原则下的品牌名翻译

李姗 Li Shan, Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract ==
Amid the deepening and widening of globalization, communications between different countries and regions have become increasingly frequent, particular in the sector of trade. Transnational corporations spring up like mushrooms. More and more brands are introduced inside and expanding outside. The first step of enterprises to expand overseas lies in the translation of the brand names. A good name foresees a good start. In this regard, cultural elements should be carefully taken into consideration in the process of translation.

This paper centers on the analysis of brand name translation in light of the principle of cultural turn. It could be divided into four parts in total. The first part is a brief introduction of the current international situation, and the purpose of this research. The second part is the short literature review in terms of both brand name translation and cultural turn. The third part is the main body of this paper, including the analysis of some successful cases of brand name translation as well as the analysis of failure ones. The last part is the summary of the whole and the significance of cultural turn in translation. Through this analysis, this paper aims to arouse people’s awareness of culture’s influence and urge them to pay more attention to cultural elements during the translation of brand names.

== Key Words ==
Cultural Turn; Brand Name Translation; Cross-culture Communication

== 摘要 ==
在全球化不断朝着纵深方向发展的背景下，不同国家和地区之间的各方面交流日益频繁，贸易行业尤其如此。跨国公司犹如雨后春笋，纷纷涌现，引进来和走出去的公司品牌越来越多。开拓外国新市场的第一步在于选取合适的品牌名。好的品牌名预示好的开始。而在翻译过程中，文化要素需要细心考量。

本文以文化转向为理论原则，以其为指导对品牌名的翻译进行分析研究。本文共包含四个部分。第一部分对当前国际现状以及研究目的进行了简要的介绍。第二部分是关于品牌名翻译和文化转向理论的文献综述。第三部分为本文的主体部分，对成功和失败的品牌名翻译进行了分析。最后一部分则概括总结本文所述内容，并阐述了翻译中文化转向的意义。通过对品牌名翻译进行简要分析研究，本文旨在激发人们翻译时的文化意识，在翻译品牌名时更多地关注文化要素。

== 关键词 ==
文化转向；品牌名翻译；跨文化交际

== Title ==
An Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn

== Introduction ==
As each country in the world is woven tightly with one another and economic globalization has developed by leaps and bounds, communications and transactions between different countries as well as regions have become increasingly frequent. More and more brands begin to expand their market in foreign lands. To enter into a new territory, brands need to enhance their competitiveness, and more importantly to give the potential consumers a perfect first impression and thus make themselves mentally accepted and acknowledged by the potential clients of the targeted market. To have a good start, advertising is a good way to win a certain fame in a circle. But there is no doubt that the top priority lies in proper brand names as a matter of the fact that proper names could impress people with a surprise and then leave a deep and enduring imprint on their mind.

Guided by the policy of Reform and Opening-up, China has initiated One Belt and One Road proposal and is committed to promoting comprehensive cooperation in the range of globe, in addition to its active participation in various economic organizations. Beyond doubt, multi-national economic activities and collaborations will develop in depth and breadth. More and more brands will be introduced inside and go outside. Therefore, this paper decides to center on the subject of brand name translation. However, the reality has told us that economic activity is not merely an economic problem and translation is not an isolated activity. “It has to do with authority and legitimacy and, ultimately, with power. Translation is not just a ‘window opened on another world’, or some such pious platitude. Rather, translation is a channel opened, often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the native culture, challenge it, and even contribute to subverting it.” (Lefevere, 2003: 2) It is closely linked to history, politics and especially culture. Taking this into consideration, this paper desires to analyze the translation of brand names from the perspective of Cultural Turn, to figure out how cultural elements influence brand name translation so as to arouse brands’ awareness of cultural gap during their advertising activities.

== Literature Review ==
=== Literature Review on Brand Name Translation ===
Brand names are intangible assets of a company, carefully chosen and aimed at distinguishing itself from other rival brands and products. The same as our names represent our personality and show our originality, brand names play the role as the faces of the brands, in the very fact themselves being a part of the products of their brand (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 118). Original, novel and imaginary names could easily attract people’s attention, arouse their interests and ultimately promote the sales of products. To fulfill this supreme mission, transnational corporations and companies that prepare to expand foreign market would pay great attention to the translation of their brand names to fit in the cultural context of the target market. Consequently, the translation of brand names has drawn a lot of attention among a number of scholars and researchers.

In China, the first study regarding the translation of brand names can be traced back to the year of 1994, when Zhou Xiaobing has made a brief analysis of the brands names and classified four approaches to translating brand names against the background of China’s Reform and Opening-up (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 17). From then on, there has been several studies conducted in this aspect. However, it was since 2005 that respectively more scholars and researchers have their eyes turned to the translation of brand names. Among them, most researches are related to Skopos theory, for example the studies of Cao Zhao, who believed that the translation of brands names should be progressed in response to certain purposes. And some scholars centered around the guiding influence of functional equivalence on the translating process, such as Tian Yuxia and Du Shuling. In addition, some analyzed the translation of brand names from the perspective of culture, including Tang Degen, Liu Jiuping and Ai’ Supin cooperated with Cao Rong. Besides the perspectives mentioned above, there are also some studies conducted in terms of psychological theories, aesthetic principles of Xu Yuanchong and other approaches (Cao Zhao, 2006: 2).

At abroad, attention has long been paid to the function of brands as the development of marketing strategies. David Aaker has published his book of Managing Brand Equity in the year of 1991, which elaborates on how to create, market, develop and manage brands (Aaker, 1991: 20). Kevin Kelley in the book titled Strategic Brand Management offers the ways to construct brands, brand equity and brand management (Keller, 1998: 8). Both of the two books have emphasized the importance of having an excellent brand name and suggested the way to name a brand. As for the papers, there are a measure trove of them in the website. In them, Chow Clement has showed the dilemma of all marketers whether to translate the brand name into local language, while the cosmetic brand names of Iran were discussed; US brands in China were carefully analyzed to form a name translation model. Besides, Chao Paul has explored the strategies to translate brand names effectively by means of brand attitude reversal and perceived brand name translation relevance in an emerging market. Schmitt Bernd advocated to select the right brand name by carefully examining tacit and explicit linguistic knowledge in name translations (Schmitt, 2001: 314). All these papers have revealed that brand name translation is of some significance and worth of study.

=== Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory ===
Translation is not merely confined to the source language and target language, but also a social and cultural activity. Cultural elements must be carefully considered during the translating process. Since people from different nations all live in the same global village, it is of necessity to have frequent exchanges. Against the barrier of the tower of Babel, translators play the role of ladders, functioning as the bridge of effective communication between different linguistic groups. Thus, translators are actually not translating the two languages, but traveling back and forth within the two cultures (Casagrande, 1954: 338).

*delete "social" of the 1st sentence_corrected by--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:43, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

After the second World War, against the background of hegemony and anti-hegemony, frequent communications across continents and countries, culture and across-culture communication have attracted more and more attention in the field of academic studies (Zeng Wenxiong, 2006: 92). As the beating power of deconstruction has greatly influenced structuralism linguistics, the former dominant linguistic approach to translation studies was shaking. The studies of text structure and meta-language has surrendered to the studies of discourse and the process of translation, which has exactly deepened the research of the cultural information of the text. The latter half of the 20th century has seen the combination of post-modern critical theories and the theory of deconstruction, thus offering a new approach to analyze translation. Different from mainly centering on the text analysis, more attention has been paid to the consideration of social, historical and cultural background of the correspondent time period. While conducting translation studies and putting forward translation principles, the academic community thus shifted their focus from merely language itself to the culture side. Then sprung two kinds of trends, the cultural turn of translation and the translation turn of literature (Lv Jun, 2004: 55).

Later twentieth century has witnessed the heat of studies of culture. In the 1970s, Israelite scholar Even-Zohar’s principle of Poly-system Theory together with Tory’s Descriptive Translation Studies have been regarded as the signs of the shift of translation to culture turn. However, cultural turn, in translation, is firstly put forward by Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere in their co-operated book Translation, History and Culture in the year of 1990 (Peng Ping, 2016: 140). In this book, they have elaborated on the power and influence of culture-related notions including history, authority and manipulation, and also narrated the aims and context of translation. Language, then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril (Bassnett, 2005: 23). Translation is not an arbitrary activity. It is conducted under certain principle and aimed to fulfill certain purpose. This paper is to elaborate on the translation of brand names with an emphasis on cultural elements.

== A Brief Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names Under Cultural Turn ==
Ever since the Industrial Revolution, commercialism rises up and all kinds of commodities appear one after another. The advances of economic globalization and cross-border transportation have also provided convenient access for foreign trade and business expansion. During the process of expansion, excellent brand names are for a certainty of great benefit to the brand’s further development.

=== Excellent Cases of Brand Name Translation ===
Focusing on our daily life, there are quite a few excellent translated brand names, which either use positive images, propitious words or contain rich cultural meanings.
==== The Use of Good Images ====
华硕 = Asus

“华硕”, a computer brand in China, its English name “Asus” comes from an ancient Greek myth. “Asus” is a part of “Pegasus”, which refers to a holy horse with wings. According to the myth, there is a woman named Medusa who is overly proud of her own beauty. That incurs the punishment of a goddess. She is turned into a dreadful enchantress and her golden long hair all become venomous snakes. Her glance at people would make petrified into stones. Then the hero Prometheus fights heavily against her and finally ended her life. Among her poisonous blood rises a holy horse with wings, running high above the sky. Thus, Pegasus the horse is commonly deemed as the symbol of creativity, virtue and beauty, especially referring to the novel thoughts of articles (Doros, 2018: 33). Through the use of this image, the brand presents a profile that its staff are creative and their aim is to bring better experience to users.

BWM = 宝马

The full name of the brand BWM is Bayerische Motoren Werke, which is short of the car plant. To make a stride in Chinese market, the brand chose “宝马” as its Chinese name, which in reality builds up a very impressive image for the brand. “宝” means something beautiful and precious, equaling to rare jewelry or great fortune. “马” is a beloved animal, which used to be the top transport tool for ancient Chinese people and when seeing this image, people may think of the legend that excellent horses can run very far and at a high speed. The combination of the two words impresses the idea that the cars of their brand are very pretty in its design and outlook, and also boast a good performance and high proficiency.

Land Rover = 路虎

Rover is a luxury car brand. And the word rover originally refers to an ancient nation in North Europe, renowned for courageous deeds. In English, the brand name constructs the picture that its cars are the same as those pioneering people who dare to counteract with any threat above the sea. Obviously, its Chinese version has successfully reproduced its original meaning. Although its ideal choice in the very beginning was “陆虎”, which was unfortunately pre-chosen by a rival. The present one is also very fantastic. “路” means the road, and “虎”, the tiger, a very strong and brave animal. As Land Rover specializes in off-road vehicles, the Chinese name “路虎” utterly shows its stance, a soldier of the road that no one would dare to or be able to hold back.

==== The Endowment of Rich Cultural Connotations ====
金典 = Satine

“金典” is one of the brands of Yili Industry Group Co., Ltd., a giant milk producer. "金" is gold in Chinese, showing that the milk boasts good quality. And "典" equals to classical, which means the taste of the milk is pure and authentic. This brand claims to be of high quality and aims at the high-end market, and in deed it occupies a large piece of pie in the plate of Chinese milk industry. As a high-end milk brand, the foreign name it chooses also shows its good taste. "Satine" is a French word, with the connotation of "as smooth as silk" (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 18). It implies that the milk boasts good quality and tastes silky, which runs in line with its orientation at middle and high-end market.

Revlon = 露华浓

Revlon is an American cosmetic brand, with foundation, lipstick and various make-up products on sale and young female users as its target consumers. Its Chinese name "露华浓", full of poetic meaning, actually comes from a poem written by a distinguished poet from Tang dynasty, named Li Bai. That poem utters a praise of the beauty of an imperial concubine, Miss Yang and she is one of the four great beauties in ancient China. The line that it comes from is “云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓”, which means when one sees the clouds in the sky, one would think of her gorgeous clothes; when one sees the flowers, one would think of her charming countenance; and the favor of the wind makes the flower even more beautiful. Through the device of metaphor, this poem vividly describes the extreme beauty of the dignified imperial concubine (Li Bai, 2009: 365). Therefore, when a cosmetic brand is connected with a poem that glorifies the beauty of a gorgeous woman, a good association is formed at ease. Therefore, the localized name of Revlon could easily attract females' attention in China and win their favor at the first sight.

Kiehl's = 科颜氏

As one of the most popular cosmetic brands in China, Kiehl's boast a good Chinese name. It was in the year of 2009 when this brand became a part of L' Oreal Group that it took the Chinese name of “科颜氏”. However, in the very beginning, it was called “契尔氏”, which could hardly trigger any related association. "科颜氏" may remind one of “神农氏”, a herborist who tastes all kinds of herbs in person to figure out their functions. And the brand shares a similar story since it stems from a pharmacy which sells unguents made up of natural plants in its early period. And at present, it advertises to be gentle and natural, free of stimulus and suitable to sensitive skins. In this regard, the two do share some common points. Thus, the association of the two would also add glory to the brand. "科" means scientific or science and "颜" means good appearance, the combination of the two would increase the sense of authority and leave consumers the impression that products of this brand would truly improve their outlook.

==== The Use of Novel Word Combinations ====
良品铺子 = Bestore

“良品铺子” is a famous Chinese snack brand familiar to almost everyone who is fond of snacks. The first two characters of the brand name means goods of high quality, and the latter two is the equivalent word for a shop or store in English. Its English translation is "Bestore", made up of "be" and "store". Through the word store, it makes the consumers clear about the types of its products on sale and the prefix "be" makes it cuter and a little bit special, distinguishing this brand from the ordinary unnamed stores (Liu Jiuping, 2001: 17). Thus, it may give people an impression of warmth and coziness, which completely corresponds with the image of a snack brand.

茶颜悦色 = Sexy Tea

Sexy Tea, an influential milk tea brand with its home located in Changsha city, Hunan province. The design of the brand is quaint, characteristic of ancient style. And the image of this brand is the pretty caricature of Lin Daiyu, a major figure of "Dream of the Red Chamber", one of the four Chinese classics. “茶颜” could be understood as the appearance or outlook of tea. “悦色” is a phrase that means a pretty and satisfying countenance or the act of satisfying people. In the translation, the words “sexy” and “tea” makes a very novel combination. “Tea” shows the nature of the brand, while the word “sexy” may easily trigger foreigners' attention and curiosity. How can a cup of milk tea be sexy? What would it taste like? Thus, this kind of emotion would persuade a number of foreign friends to have a try in its shops.

美加净 = Maxam

“美加净” is a time-honored cosmetic brand in China. Its selling point lies in the baby care products, though a lot of adult females have also been attracted by it. In Chinese culture, “美” means beauty, and “净” means cleanliness. The two are linked by the word “加”, which means plus. That is to say these products can make one's skin both beautiful and clean. The English name of Maxam has properly expressed this connotation. Maxam is similar to the word maximum both in sound and in spelling, thus, it opts to impress people as maximizing one's beauty to largest degree.

After a careful analysis of the successful brand names in the fields of car, food and cosmetics both in China and at abroad, we may make a summary of the common points that they share. First of all, positive images and words are preferred to constitute their names, most of which are combinations of adjectives and nouns that hold propitious senses. The association of pure verbs with fine connotations also offers great novelty and is of great appeal to the audience (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). What’s more, the translated brand names all possess good meaning in the cultural context of the target market, without any ambiguous or implicit reference to something negative in that culture. In addition, most brands would prefer to reveal the category of their products in their names. That makes it quite easy for the consumers to know their functions by a mere glimpse. The guidelines of these successful brand names would offer valuable experiences for the other brands.

=== Failure Cases of the Brand Name Translation ===
Besides those excellent cases, failure cases of brand name translation also abound in the global market.

==== The Misuse of Negative Images ====
白猫 = white cat

“白猫” is a producer of wash supplies. It occupies a large share of Chinese market and its existence could be caught in almost every store and supermarket. There is no doubt that a great number of people would be shocked to see that it is translated into White Cat directly. In western culture, cat is a negative image that is usually regarded as an evil creature in everyday life. For example, in Edgar Allen Poe’s short novel, the black cat is deemed by people as an incarnation of witches, the embodiment of evil forces. Though the color of white is the symbol for purity and faith, the cat image owns such a strong influence that the positive meaning of the former is easily offset in their combination.

白象 = White Elephant

“白象” is a Chinese supplier of battery. In Chinese culture, elephant boast the meaning of good luck. But after it is translated into English, it is literally named as White Elephant, which is definitely a failure case that should be avoided in the context of western culture. Because in English world, white elephant holds pretty negative meaning, referring to those flashy stuff that are elegant but useless (Cao Zhao, 2006: 20). Therefore, the brand name would leave people the impression that the battery the brand sells are the same as white elephants, expensive but not enduring.

==== The Ambiguous Pronunciation of Words ====
方太 = FOTILE

“方太” is a brand that specializes in manufacturing and selling household electrical appliances. There are two levels of meanings lying in this name. Firstly, when the brand was to intitle a new name, there was a heated TV show named as Fang Tai Food Square. The brand decided to take this name to attract people’s attention, especially those audience who are fond of that reality show. Secondly, “方太” can also be seen as the abbreviation of “方便太太”, that is, to bring convenience to the household wives. Obviously, the Chinese brand name shares many links with keeping kitchen clean as well as simplifying household duties. However, its translation is far from satisfying, not to mention expressing these implications. The sound of “FOTILE” is extremely similar to the pronunciation of the word “futile”. Therefore, it could be easily uttered in the wrong way and leaves a terrible impression on people’s mind. Few people would take the risk to purchase some appliance that seems to be “futile”.

Standard Chartered Bank = 渣打银行

Standard Chartered is an international bank with its headquarter located in Britain. It promises the service principle of “Here for good”. When it had its debut in Shanghai, China, it used “渣打” as its name. However, in Chinese, “渣” means dregs and “打”is a verb that means breaking up. The combination of the two fail to form a convincing image required for a bank. Except those who have certain knowledge about it, ordinary people would not list it as their hold-up vessel of money, as its name grants the bank little credit, far away from convincing.

Warsteiner = 沃斯乐/沃斯坦

Warsteiner is a time-honored and highly-welcomed beer producer in Germany. Warsteiner is named after the city where the beer is produced and it implies that the water used to produce the beer comes from the mountain spring, which is natural and clean (Woesler, Martin). But it boasts little fame in China, for it was translated into “沃斯乐” during its first entry into Chinese market. The pronunciation of that name is quite similar to "我死了" in Chinese. Death is a taboo word in Chinese culture, seldom referred in public, let alone related to a retailor brand. Even though it is renamed later, the present name 沃斯坦 still fails to arouse people's wide attention or strong interest in the broad market of China.

==== The Loss of Cultural Connotation ====
方正 = Founder

“方正” is a computer brand, invested by one of the top universities in China, Peking University in 1986. Its name is said to originate from a sentence of Biography of the Han Dynasty · Chao Cuo, that carefully examine others’ behavior so as not to misunderstand them, strictly abide by decrees without personal interests, do your utmost to accomplish the tasks delegated from the leaders without complaint; dare not the death even in face of dangers, do not occupy a position when there is someone more competitive than you, accept proper amount of gains in accordance with your efforts, and never stay on a position while you are not qualified, only those who possess all these virtues could be regarded as truly virtuous men (Ban Gu, 2018: 860). Here, “方正” is of rich cultural connotation and refers to virtuous deeds. However, its correspondent translation runs away from its original meaning. The word “founder” not only could refer to the pioneer of something, but also means the failure, breaking-down of something. In light of this, when the initial founder of this company was experiencing an emergent incident in 2000, foreign media bantered that “the Founder’s founder founders”. To avoid such teas, more attention should be paid to the translation of brand name.

DS (Deesse) = 谛艾仕

DS is a top luxury car brand in French auto industry, short of Déesse which means goddess. This brand received warmly welcome from government officials in France. But its translated Chinese brings it another picture in China. It neither expressed its original cultural meaning, nor integrated into Chinese culture. The name “谛艾仕” could hardly invoke any association of people towards splendid cars, as it was just mechanically translated in line with its pronunciation. Thus, cars of this brand are less seen in webs of transportation than BWM and Benz in China.

After the analysis of some failure cases of brand name translation, we may draw a brief conclusion about the causes that lead to their failure. Firstly, the failure lies in the misuse of improper images. Different culture has different cultural images. And the connotation that an image or object is endowed with may differ from country to country or culture to culture (Zhou Xiaobing, 1994: 18). Thus, great attention should be called when it comes to choose a name embodied with images. Secondly, the failure lies in the choice of words with ambiguous pronunciation. The words that share similar sounds with original characters may cause misunderstanding in another culture, since it could sound like another word that contains negative meaning. Thus, the desire to have links between original brand name and translated version could run counter to one's desire. Thirdly, the failure lies in the loss of cultural sense. Some name brands are taking on cultural elements that are confined in the source cultural context. But the translators merely frankly translate those names without a thought of conveying the deep-buried cultural meaning so that these brands fail to perform as well as expected. To avoid bad translations, the causes of them listed above deserve careful attention.

== Conclusion ==
Translation is not just a process that happens in the translator’s head. Readers decide to accept or reject translations (Lefevere, 2003: 5). Good translations keep the spirit without moving away from the letter. Bad translations render the letter without the spirit in a low and servile imitation. After a careful analysis of some brand name translations, the phrase “cultural turn” would be a great answer to the question of how to translate brand names. When we speak of “a culture” or “the receiving culture,” we would do well to remember that cultures are not monolithic entities, but that there is always a tension inside a culture between different groups, or individuals, who want to influence the evolution of that culture in the way they think best. Translations have been made with the intention of influencing the development of a culture (Lefevere, 2003: 8). That means more attention should be paid to the culture of the target language in the process of translation so as to gain expected response. In terms of brand name translation, cultural elements should be seriously taken into consideration. The constituent images and words should be carefully chosen and the pronunciation and implication of the names also need detailed examination in the context of targeted market. And it is easier to expand a new territory when a brand is shouldered local color.

Besides the benefit it brings to the brand, cultural turn in brand name translation also boasts other significance. Firstly, more attention to the consumers’ culture is a manifestation of taking the target consumers into consideration, thus, bring them a sense of being cared about; secondly, translated brand names themselves can be seen as cultural elements, contributing to people’s acquaintance with and understanding of the culture of another community, thus good for mutual understanding and cultural communications; thirdly, it is significant to the development of multi-culturalism since every culture is precious treasure in the world treasure-house of intellect and heritage, while some culture has been long in the dominant position and continuously posing threat to other cultures due to the disparity of political and economic forces (Xie Tianzhen, 2006: 12). More concern about and consideration of the culture of another community is necessary to eliminate and prevent cultural hegemony and supremacy. From this point of view, cultural turn in brand name translation is of great significance.(written by--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2021 (UTC))

== References ==
Aaker, David. Managign Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name[M]. New York: Free Press, 1991.

Ban Gu 班固（2018）. 汉书[M] The Book of Han Dynasty. 郑州: 中州古籍出版社 Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Press, 860-862.

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. New York: Routledge, 2005.

Cao Zhao 曹昭（2006）. 品牌名翻译的目的与适应性研究[D] Study on the Purposes and Adaptability of Brand Name Translation. 西安电子科技大学 Xidian University.

Casgrand, J. B. The End of Translation [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1954(04): 330-340.

Doros Apollo, Zhou Zuoren阿波罗·多洛斯著，周作人译（2018）．希腊神话[M] Greek Mythology.长江出版社 Changjiang Press, 33-34.

Keller, Kevin. Strategic Brand Management[M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998.

Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture[M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Li Bai 李白（2009）. 李太白诗集[M] Poetry of Li Bai. China Book Bureau, 360-365.

Liu Jiuping 刘久平（2001）. 品牌名翻译与文化差异[J] Brand Name Translation and Cultural Differences. 广西大学学报 Journal of Guangxi University, 12: 117-119.

Lv Jun 吕俊（2004）. 论翻译研究的本体回归——对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J] The Return of the Noumenon of Translation Studies —— Reflections on “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University, 4: 53-59.

Peng Ping 彭萍（2016）. 当代西方翻译研究的“文化转向”和“社会转向”综述[J] Summary of “Cultural Turn” and “Social Turn” in Contemporary Western Translation Studies. 江西师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Jiangxi Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition), 3: 140-144.

Schmitt, B. H. Creating Local Brands in Multilingual International Markets[J]. Journal of Marketing Reserch, 2001(08): 313-325.
Wang Ning 王宁（2009）. 比较文学与翻译研究的文化转向[J] “Cultural Turn” in Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 5: 19-26.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振（2006）. 翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J] Comparative Literary Significance of “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies. 中国比较文学 Journal of Chinese Comparative Literature, 3: 1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong 曾文雄（2006）.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J] The Keys Problems and Way out of "Cultural Turn". 外语学刊Foreign Language Journal, 2: 90-96.

Zhou Xiaobing 周小兵（1994）. 商品品牌译名分析[J] Analysis of Brand Name Translation of Commodities. 语文建设 Journal of Chinese Construction, 2: 17-19.

The cultural turn

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Huang Yiyan1: /* On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

The cultural turn

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Huang Yiyan1: /* On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

The cultural turn

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Huang Yiyan1: /* On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

Cult Turn EN 6

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Huang Yiyan1: /* Research Objective and Significance */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (Wang Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

==== Research Objective and Significance====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. According to Bassnett, translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better. As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture. As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference. Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.(Zeng Wenxiong,2006:45)

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:23) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:15) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:26) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:16)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, Wang Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(Sun Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. Xie has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(Xie Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48) Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48)Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:54) While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou
Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .
Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100) In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival
On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?
The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:63) Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.
Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .
Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156) This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:34)

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. (Hervey & Higgins,1992:12)The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month
For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .
Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98) And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. (Liu Xiaoying,2013:24)Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Bassnnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:62)The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

Xu Tingting徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Changsha:Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

Liu Xiaoying刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-13T12:23:13Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (Wang Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

==== Research Objective and Significance====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. According to Bassnett, translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better. As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture. As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference. Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.(Zeng Wenxiong,2006:45)

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:23) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:15) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:26) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:16)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, Wang Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(Sun Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. Xie has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(Xie Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48) Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48)Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:54) While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou
Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .
Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100) In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival
On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?
The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:63) Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.
Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .
Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156) This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:34)

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. (Hervey & Higgins,1992:12)The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month
For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .
Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98) And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. (Liu Xiaoying,2013:24)Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Bassnnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:62)The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

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Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

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Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

Xu Tingting徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Changsha:Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

Liu Xiaoying刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

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Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-13T12:21:31Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Literal Translation and Free Translation */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (Wang Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

==== Research Objective and Significance====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. According to Bassnett, translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better. As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture. As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference. Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.(Zeng Wenxiong,2006:45)

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:23) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:15) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:26) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:16)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, Wang Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(Sun Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. Xie has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(Xie Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48) Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48)Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:54) While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou
Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .
Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100) In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival
On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?
The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:63) Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156) This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:34)

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. (Hervey & Higgins,1992:12)The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98) And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. (Liu Xiaoying,2013:24)Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Bassnnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:62)The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

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Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

Zeng Wenxiong曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-13T12:16:54Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (Wang Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

==== Research Objective and Significance====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. According to Bassnett, translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better. As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture. As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference. Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.(Zeng Wenxiong,2006:45)

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:23) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:15) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:26) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004:16)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, Wang Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(Sun Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. Xie has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(Xie Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48) Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:48)Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:54) While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:100) In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. (Xu Yuanchong,2007:104)In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:63) Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:156) This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. ( Xu Yuanchong,2007:22)In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.(Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:34)

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. (Hervey & Higgins,1992:12)The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death.(Xu Yuanchong,2007:98) And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. (Liu Xiaoying,2013:24)Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Bassnnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3)It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. (Shuttleworth, M &Cowie,2004:62)The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

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Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-13T11:37:42Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* References */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===
This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (WANG Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

==== Research Objective====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference.

Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

==== Research Significance====
As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture.

As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, WANG Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(SUN Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. XIE has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(XIE Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent. While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou. In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture. Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins (1992) to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death. And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Basnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry. It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

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Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-13T11:30:05Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Background */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===
This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (WANG Ning, 2009:8) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990:3) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

==== Research Objective====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference.

Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

==== Research Significance====
As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture.

As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, WANG Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(SUN Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. XIE has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(XIE Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent. While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou. In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture. Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins (1992) to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death. And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Basnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry. It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

[1]Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

[2]Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

[3]Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[4]Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

[5] 徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

[6]许渊冲.苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

[7]刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

[8]谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

[9]谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

[10]曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

[11]曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

20211215 homework

2021-12-12T14:51:33Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491 */

20211215 homework

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Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492 */

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-08T15:32:57Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Introduction ===
This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (WANG Ning, 2009) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In 2016, President Xi pointed out that, in the final analysis, we are supposed to be boost our confidence in our culture when we talk about strengthening our confidence in the path, theory and system. Later he also emphasized the importance of “’telling Chinese stories well”. Translation studies on Chinese culture from the perspective cultural turn will help show the elegance and meanwhile promote the spread of Chinese culture. And ancient poetry can be a good representative.

==== Research Objective====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference.

Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

==== Research Significance====
As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture.

As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, WANG Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(SUN Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. XIE has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(XIE Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent. While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou. In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture. Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins (1992) to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death. And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Basnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry. It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

[1]Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

[2]Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

[3]Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[4]Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

[5] 徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

[6]许渊冲.苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

[7]刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

[8]谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

[9]谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

[10]曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

[11]曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-08T15:30:40Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* References */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Title ===

On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (WANG Ning, 2009) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In 2016, President Xi pointed out that, in the final analysis, we are supposed to be boost our confidence in our culture when we talk about strengthening our confidence in the path, theory and system. Later he also emphasized the importance of “’telling Chinese stories well”. Translation studies on Chinese culture from the perspective cultural turn will help show the elegance and meanwhile promote the spread of Chinese culture. And ancient poetry can be a good representative.

==== Research Objective====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference.

Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

==== Research Significance====
As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture.

As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, WANG Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(SUN Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. XIE has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(XIE Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent. While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou. In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture. Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins (1992) to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death. And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Basnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry. It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

[1]Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

[2]Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

[3]Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[4]Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

[5] 徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

[6]许渊冲.苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

[7]刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

[8]谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

[9]谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

[10]曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

[11]曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-08T15:29:08Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* References */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Title ===

On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (WANG Ning, 2009) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In 2016, President Xi pointed out that, in the final analysis, we are supposed to be boost our confidence in our culture when we talk about strengthening our confidence in the path, theory and system. Later he also emphasized the importance of “’telling Chinese stories well”. Translation studies on Chinese culture from the perspective cultural turn will help show the elegance and meanwhile promote the spread of Chinese culture. And ancient poetry can be a good representative.

==== Research Objective====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference.

Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

==== Research Significance====
As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture.

As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, WANG Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(SUN Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. XIE has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(XIE Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent. While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou. In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture. Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins (1992) to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death. And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Basnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry. It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

[1]Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

[2]Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

[3]Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[4]Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

[5] 徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角On Burton Watson’s Translation of Su Shi’s Poetry from the Perspective of Literary Localization[D].广东外语外贸大学Guangdong University of Foreign Studies,2021.

[6]许渊冲.苏轼诗词 Selected Poems of Su Shi[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社Hunan People’s Publishing House，2007.

[7]刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译The English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Translation Theory[D].河北大学 Hebei University 2013.

[8]谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义Creative Treason : Controversy, Substance, and Meaning[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2012(02):33-40.

[9]谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义After the "Cultural Turn" of Translation Studies -- Comparative Literature Significance of the Cultural Turn of Translation Studies[J].中国比较文学 Comparative Literature in China,2006(03):1-14.

[10]曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思 Reflections on the "Cultural Turn" in translation studies[J].外语研究 Foreign Languages Research,2006(03):45-47+80.

[11]曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路The Core Problem and Way out of "Cultural Turn"[J].外语学刊Foreign Language Research,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-08T14:45:23Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
'''文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究 '''

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Title ===

On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (WANG Ning, 2009) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In 2016, President Xi pointed out that, in the final analysis, we are supposed to be boost our confidence in our culture when we talk about strengthening our confidence in the path, theory and system. Later he also emphasized the importance of “’telling Chinese stories well”. Translation studies on Chinese culture from the perspective cultural turn will help show the elegance and meanwhile promote the spread of Chinese culture. And ancient poetry can be a good representative.

==== Research Objective====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference.

Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

==== Research Significance====
As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture.

As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, WANG Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(SUN Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. XIE has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(XIE Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent. While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou. In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture. Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins (1992) to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death. And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Basnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry. It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

[1]Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

[2]Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

[3]Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[4]Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

[5]徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角[D].广东外语外贸大学,2021.

[6]许渊冲.苏轼诗词[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社，2007.

[7]刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译[D].河北大学,2013.

[8]谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(02):33-40.

[9]谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J].中国比较文学,2006(03):1-14.

[10]曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J].外语研究,2006(03):45-47+80.

[11]曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J].外语学刊,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-08T14:42:47Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄逸妍On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=Chapter 6: On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
“文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究”

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Title ===

On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (WANG Ning, 2009) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In 2016, President Xi pointed out that, in the final analysis, we are supposed to be boost our confidence in our culture when we talk about strengthening our confidence in the path, theory and system. Later he also emphasized the importance of “’telling Chinese stories well”. Translation studies on Chinese culture from the perspective cultural turn will help show the elegance and meanwhile promote the spread of Chinese culture. And ancient poetry can be a good representative.

==== Research Objective====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference.

Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

==== Research Significance====
As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture.

As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, WANG Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(SUN Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. XIE has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(XIE Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent. While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou. In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture. Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins (1992) to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death. And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Basnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry. It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

[1]Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

[2]Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

[3]Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[4]Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

[5]徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角[D].广东外语外贸大学,2021.

[6]许渊冲.苏轼诗词[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社，2007.

[7]刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译[D].河北大学,2013.

[8]谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(02):33-40.

[9]谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J].中国比较文学,2006(03):1-14.

[10]曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J].外语研究,2006(03):45-47+80.

[11]曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J].外语学刊,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

Cult Turn EN 6

2021-12-08T14:39:04Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* Conclusion */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

[[The_cultural_turn|Overview Page of The Cultural Turn]]

=黄逸妍On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
“文化转向视角下苏轼诗词的英译策略研究”

黄逸妍 Huang Yiyan，Hunan Normal University，China

=== Abstract ===
Poetry is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is the translator's mission to disseminate Chinese classical poetry. Su Shi was a literary leader in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, who made great achievements in poetry, prose, calligraphy and painting. However, few scholars have paid attention to the cultural aspect of translation of Su Shi's poetry . Based on the theory of cultural turn, this paper analyzes and discovers the factors that influence the target readers' understanding of Chinese culture and the transmission of Chinese culture in the translation of classical poetry -- cultural default and cultural difference. Under the guidance of this theory, the author finds that the combination of literal translation and free translation, the coordination of domestication and foreignization, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution can promote the target readers' understanding of Chinese poetry as well as the dissemination of Chinese culture.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn, Translation Strategies, Su Shi's Poetry

=== 摘要 ===
诗歌是我国文化的重要载体，具有浓厚的中华文化底蕴；传播中国古典诗歌是译者的使命。作为北宋中期文坛领袖，苏轼在诗、词、散文、书、画等方面都颇有建树。但对于苏轼诗歌英译的研究，鲜少有学者关注到文化层面。本文以文化转向理论为基础，分析并发现了英译古典诗歌中影响目标读者理解或影响中国文化传播的因素——文化缺省和文化差异。在文化转向理论的指导下，作者发现直译意译相结合、归化异化相协调、文化借用和文化替代能够很好地改善由文化缺省和文化差异带来的理解障碍，在促进目标读者对于中国诗歌理解的同时也促进的中国文化的传播。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；翻译策略；苏轼诗词

=== Title ===

On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory

=== Introduction ===

This chapter introduces the background, purpose, approach, significance of the study and the structure of this paper.

==== Background ====
In a long time, translation studies have been conducted in terms of comparative linguistics, comparative literature and cultural study. (WANG Ning, 2009) Traditional translation studies have always been dominated by language-centrism mode. With the belief that translation is just a conversion between two languages, the translators have to be faithful to the original text and express the meaning in the target language in a fluent and elaborate way. However, as the effects of globalization spread continuously, more attention is paid to the cultural aspect of translation. Susan Bassnett put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990 and believed that translation shouldn’t be confined to transfer of language but incorporate the cultural factor as a whole.(Susan Bassnett, 1990) Susan Bassnett held that “translation studies is not merely a minor branch of comparative literary study, not yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching ramifications”(Bassnett, 1980:1), and she believed that “the process of translation involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria”(Bassnett, 1980:13). Susan Bassnett pointed out that language was the heart within the body of culture. She compared the surgery operated by surgeon to the translation performed by translator and she said “In the same waythat the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”(Bassnett, 1980:14). Later, in 1990, Susan Bassnett further illustrated her theory of culture translation in the book Translation, History, and Culture in which she put forward four suggestions: Firstly, translation are supposed to be conducted with culture as the translation unit and should not linger on the discourse level all the time; Secondly, translation is not a simple process of decoding and re-coding but an activity of communication; Thirdly, translation should be considered as the functional equivalence in the culture of target language rather than be confined as the description of source text; Fourthly, different methods and principles should be applied in different situations in order to achieve different communication goals and needs.

In 2016, President Xi pointed out that, in the final analysis, we are supposed to be boost our confidence in our culture when we talk about strengthening our confidence in the path, theory and system. Later he also emphasized the importance of “’telling Chinese stories well”. Translation studies on Chinese culture from the perspective cultural turn will help show the elegance and meanwhile promote the spread of Chinese culture. And ancient poetry can be a good representative.

==== Research Objective====
This research collects translation materials from Selected Poems of Li Bai translated by XU Yuanchong, one of the most famous translators in China. Under the instruction of cultural turn theory, this study aims at figuring out the effects of different translation strategies. The research also explores the practical implication by analyzing XU’s application of translation strategies and thus help us express our culture better.

==== Research Method====
The researcher reads the book Selected Poems of Li Bai. In this process, the researcher writes down the translation containing the employment of translation strategy which is a result of cultural difference.

Descriptive qualitative analysis method refers to a way to study a thing by describing the attributes of the thing and focusing on the features of the thing. This method is employed in describing and analyzing the effects from using different strategies.

==== Research Significance====
As far as practical significance is concerned, this study serves to provide an appreciation on XU’s translation of LI Bai’s poems from the perspective of cultural turn. What’s more important, it also supplies some implication to the translators about expressing, translating and spreading our Chinese culture to the world. Therefore, to some degree, this study will contribute to the spreading, expanding and enriching of Chinese culture.

As for the significance in theory, on the one hand, this study verifies the analytical potential of cultural theory and the value of this theory employed in translation.

=== Literature Review ===
This part presents the results of other researchers’ studies on the subject at home and abroad.

==== Studies Abroad====
Since the 1960s, traditional aesthetic and linguistic method in translation studies have been doubted while translation study in cultural aspect has developed. The “cultural turn” began with the focus on culture by the cultural school. And the study of cultural school can be roughly divided into the stage of culturalism in the 1960s, the structuralism in the 1970s and the post-structuralism.The culturalism expanded the meaning of culture and changes it from elite culture to mass culture. Structuralism turned to discuss the relationship between text and hegemony and the post-structuralism focuses on cultural diversity.

In 1990, Bassnett wrote in collaboration with Lefevere and put forward the concept of “cultural turn”officially in their book. Later, both of them published monographs and collected papers to further illustrate their ideas about cultural turn. Andre Lefevere regarded translation as a form of writing.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:9) And in the book Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulating of Literary Fame, Lefevere tried to demonstrate how rewriting including influences the acceptance and canonization progress of literary works. In his later book, Lefevere pointed out the four elements of translation studies, namely, ideology, poetics, universe of discourse and language.(Andre Lefevere, 1992:87) In Susan Bassnett’s opinion, Translators should carry out translation in a specific cultural context and should never translate in isolation from cultural background.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) The aim of translation was to make readers from two or more cultural backgrounds communicate while the exchange of information should take second place.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) According to this book, Bassnett believed that different translation methods and strategies should be adopted when it comes to different cultural context. For example, when the original text is descriptive or technological,the translator ought to employ literal translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2004) As for the standard of translation, Bassnett argued that there is no single criterion for translation evaluation. When evaluating we are supposed to judge the translation according to whether it can meet the needs of service object.(Susan Bassnett, 2004)

==== Studies At Home====
In China, the study of cultural translation started relatively late. In 1984, WANG Zuoliang published a paper entitled Cultural Comparison in Translation which initiated the study of cultural translation study in China. On he whole, the topics of theses are no longer limited to the interpretation of literary works and the research perspectives are increasingly diversified, which shows the deepening and systematic study in this field.(SUN Yu, 2017:13) In 2006, ZENG pointed out that the cultural turn tends to break away from the ontological study of traditional translation view. In fact, the cultural school has not developed a universal translation theory to describe the translation process reasonably. He argued that cultural turn is only an important aspect and should not be the whole of translation studies. With the reflection of cultural turn, it is necessary to make clear the task of translation studies, update the concept of translation studies and promote the construction of translation studies. XIE has contributed to the update of cultural turn theory in China.In 2012, he introduced the notion “Translation is always a sort of creative treason” put forward by French sociologist Robert Escarpit and he illustrated the significance and value of this notion,based on his analysis of the relevant theories and the theoretical connotations of the notion.(XIE Tianzheng, 2012:1)

Part of the articles analyzed the relationship between cultural translation and promotion of Chinese culture going out. HU Anjiang analyzed the hardships and acceptance of spread of Chinese culture overseas. He pointed out two issues that the translator tended to ignore, that is, principles of translation pattern selection and strategies of rational choice.

=== Analysis of Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory ===

This chapter mainly discusses the effects of translation strategies applied in the translation of Su Shi’s poems.

==== Cultural Default and Translation Strategies====
Cultural default is defined as “absences of relevant cultural background knowledge shared by the author and his intended readers”. Bassnett holds that translation is the communication between and inside cultures. The equivalence of translation is the cultural functional equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).(Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990:8) Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how to effect translation strategies on cultural level.

===== Literal Translation and Free Translation=====
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Literal translation requires translators to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, rhetoric of the original and so on. Besides, literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language.

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation.

Literal translation helps keep the original style of source text because the original elements conveying the author’s attitudes such as words, syntax, metaphors and so on are maintained to some extent. While free translation is employed when it is difficult to find cultural equivalent in the target language. In such kind of situation, what the author wants to express is transformed into linguistic elements of the target culture so that the intended readers are able to understand the meaning of original text.

Example 1:
SL:
江城子· 密州出猎
老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄，右擎苍。锦帽貂裘，千骑卷平冈。为报倾城随太守，亲射虎，看孙郎。
酒酣胸胆尚开张，鬓微霜，又何妨？持节云中，何日遣冯唐？会挽雕弓如满月，西北望，射天狼。

TL:
Riverside Town Hunting at Mizhou

Rejuvenated , my fiery zeal I display :
Left hand leashing a yellow hound ,
On the right wrist a falcon gray .
A thousand silk-capped and sable-coated horsemen sweep
Across the rising ground
And hillocks steep .
Townspeople come out of the city gate
To watch the tiger-hunting magistrate .

Heart gladdened with strong wine , who cares
For a few frosted hairs ?
When will the imperial court send
Me as envoy with flags and banners ? Then I”ll bend
My bowl like a full moon , and aiming northwest , I
Will shoot down the wolf from the sky.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1075 when Su Shi was sent to Mizhou. In this poem, the poet expressed his strong desire and resolve to contribute to his country by fighting against the enemy and protecting common people from being destitute and homeless. The first sentence explains the reason of hunting -- great aspiration; the second sentence describes the costume of hunters and the grand occasion; the third sentence expresses the poet’s decision to hunt a tiger in recognition of the kindness of the army and civilians throughout the city. In the second part, the poet depicts the the grand after-hunt drinking scene and compares himself to Wei Shang, a local official with an outstanding contribution, and expresses his hope that he will be able to undertake the task of defending the border.

The original words “锦帽貂裘” is translated into “silk-capped and sable-coated” and “天狼” into “the wolf from the sky”. Undoubtedly, literal translation is used because the original words correspond to the translated ones. The unique characteristics of Chinese cultural dress like silk fabric are maintained, which enables the target readers to know more about Chinese culture. Actually, “天狼” is the name of a constellation, here it is a metaphor which refers to another country frequently violating the poet’s country. To make target readers comprehend the poem without cultural barrier, the translator uses “the wolf from the sky” , which represents a literal translation strategy.

Example 2:
SL:
水调歌头·明月几时有
丙辰中秋，欢饮达旦，大醉，作此篇，兼怀子由。
明月几时有？把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙，今夕是何年？我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间？
转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。不应有恨，何事长向别时圆？人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。

TL:
Prelude to Water Melody Sent to Ziyou on Mid- autumn Festival

On the mid-autumn festival , I drank happily till dawn and wrote
this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou .
When did the bright moon first appear ?
Wine-cup in hand , I ask the blue sky .
I do not know what time of year
It would be tonight in the palace on high .
Riding the wind , there I would fly ,
But l’ m afraid the crystalline palace would be
Too high and too cold for me ·
I rise and dance , with my shadow I play .
On high as on earth , would it be as gay?

The moon goes round the mansions red
With gauze windows to shed
Her light upon the sleepless bed .
Against man she should not have any spite .
Why then when people part is she oft full and bright ?
Men have sorrow and joy , they part and meet again ;
The moon may be bright or dim , she may wax or wane ·
There has been nothing perfect since olden days .
So let us wish that man live as long as he can !
Though miles apart，we’ll share the beauty she displays.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the first part, the poet imagined the scene on the moon and guesses that the moon may be too cold to live on. The second part describes how the moon shed its light and compares man’s sorrow and joy and parting and meeting to moon’s being bright and dim and waxing and waning. Written in 1076, the poem records the poet’s imagination and thinking about the moon on Mid-Autumn festival and the philosophical pursuit of life. Besides, this poem not only expresses the poet's good wishes to loved ones, but also expresses his broad-minded and detached view of optimism in the frustrating official career.

The last sentence of the first part “起舞弄清影，何似在人间” depicts the scene when the poet dance under the moon and he thinks that the temperature on the moon is too low so he would like live on the earth. In the translation, Mr. Xu translates it into “On high as on earth , would it be as gay?”. Obviously, he changes what the poet expresses in the original text. Instead, he explores the deeper reason why Su Shi prefers to live on earth -- there is worldly joy that can not be copied on the moon. According to the comparison, the fact can be detected that free translation strategy is employed to convey the poet’s authentic feeling and to enable target readers to empathize with the original poem. What’s more, in example 1, there is also free translation strategy. The words “孙郎” and “冯唐” refer to two persons in Chinese history. “孙郎” is Sun Quan in the three kingdoms period who hunted a tiger while “冯唐” is an envoy who contributed greatly to the peace between two countries. Translator does not use word-for-word translation and he remove the allusion in the original text and expresses them in a comprehensible way.

Conclusion then can be drawn that separation of literal translation and free translation is impossible or unreasonable. Combination of literal and free translation avoids obscure expression caused by cultural default and meanwhile transfers source language culture and makes target language readers feel the same as source language readers.

===== Domestication and Foreignization=====
Domestication and foreignization are two translation strategies and they deal mainly with the extent to which a translator makes a text observe the cultural norms and values of the target language and culture. Domestication and Foreignization are a pair of opposites. Domestication is the strategy of making a text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text so as to focus on the target audience. Foreignization is based on retaining the culture-specific items of the original, accommodating the translation to source language and absorbing the exotic expression of source language.

Example 3:
SL:
定风波
三月七日，沙湖道中遇雨。雨具先去，同行皆狼狈，余独不觉，已而遂晴，故作此词。
莫听穿林打叶声，何妨吟啸且徐行。竹杖芒鞋轻胜马，谁怕？一蓑烟雨任平生。
料峭春风吹酒醒，微冷，山头斜照却相迎。回首向来萧瑟处，归去，也无风雨也无晴。

TL:
Calming the Waves Caught in Rain on My Way to the Sandy Lake
On the 7th day of the 3rd month we were caught in rain on our way to the Sandy Lake . The umbrellas had gone ahead , my companions were quite downhearted , but I took no notice. It soon cleared , and I wrote this.

Listen not to the rain beating against the trees .
I had better walk slowly while chanting at ease .
Better than a saddle I like sandals and cane .
I’d fain ,
In a straw cloak , spend my life in mist and rain .

Drunken, I am sobered by the vernal wind shrill
And rather chill .
In front , I see the slanting sun atop the hill ;
Turning my head , I see the dreary beaten track .
Let me go back !
Impervious to rain or shine , I’ll have my own will.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

In the poem, the poet encounters wind and rain in the wild but the rain dose not bother him and influence his emotion, showing his broad-minded and detached mind. This poem reflects how an upright literati strive to extricate from his rough life and shows the author's belief and spiritual pursuit in life.

In the second sentence, the poet uses “竹杖芒鞋” to describe his simple wearing in order to express his open and clear mind. In Chinese ancient culture, most sandals are made of straw and cane of bamboo. However, to make the understanding of target readers easier, the translator weakens the features deeply rooted in Chinese culture and and removes the elements that illustrating the material of the two things.

Example 4:
SL:
登高回首坡垄隔，但见乌帽出复没。
（《辛丑十一月十九日既与子由别于郑州西门之外马上赋诗一篇寄之》）

TL:
Ascending a height , I look back and feel so sad
To see your black cap now appear , now disappear.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

This poem was written in 1061 when Su Shi parted with his brother. In this poem, Su Shi expresses his unwillingness to see his brother away, writes the recollection of the past and the anticipation of the future and also expostulates that his brother should not outstay his office of which he should make light. In ancient China, black gauze cap symbolizes the social status as an official appointed by the government. In the original, the poet uses “乌帽” to remind his brother the identity as an official which paves the way for his expostulation in the last sentence of the poem. Xu Yuanchong translates “乌帽” directly into “black cap”, which embodies the use of foreinization translation strategy. As a unique cultural item in China, “乌帽” is obviously absent from target culture and here translator does not explain its meaning in order to arouse readers’ interest and readers will have the opportunity to know more about Chinese culture.

It can be seen that domestication promotes target readers’ understanding but only domestication will lead to loss of original style and beauty of the source language. If domestication and foreignization are combined and dealt with to a reasonable extent, the translation will be more faithful, smooth and it will conform to the expressing habits of the target language. Therefore, the use of domestication and foreignization translation methods should be analyzed and measured, so that the two cultures can communicate and merge in the conflict through cultural openness and permeability.

==== Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies====
Readers from different cultural background have different understanding of a certain cultural items. To get the roughly same response among source language and target language readers, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution are used in translation.

===== Cultural Borrowing=====
When there are no exact equivalents between the source text and the target text, cultural borrowing can be adopted. Cultural borrowing is “a term used by Hervey & Higgins (1992) to describe the type of cultural transposition in which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor alteration; however what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be made clear by the TT context.” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:34)

Example 4:
SL:
江城子·乙卯正月二十日夜记梦
十年生死两茫茫。不思量，自难忘。千里孤坟，无处话凄凉。纵使相逢应不识，尘满面，鬓如霜。
夜来幽梦忽还乡。小轩窗，正梳妆。相顾无言，惟有泪千行。料得年年肠断处，明月夜，短松冈。

TL:
Riverside Town Dreaming of My Deceased Wife on the Night of the 20th day of the 1st Month

For ten long years the living of the dead knows nought .
Should the dead be forgot
And to mind never brought ?
Her lonely grave is a thousand miles away .
To whom can l my grief convey ?
Revived e ' en if she be , could she still know me ?
My face is worn with care
And frosted is my hair .

Last night I dreamed of coming to my native place :
She ' s making up her face
At the window with grace .
We gazed at each other hushed ,
But tears from our eyes gushed .
When I am woken , I fancy her heart一broken
On the mound clad with pines ,
Where only the moon shines .
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)

For the mourning of his wife Wang Fu, Su Shi wrote this poem and expressed his endless sorrow and missing for his beloved wife. The first part depicts his current situation and shows his feelings of agony and missing after his wife’s death. And the second part records his dream that he and his wife meet again when he and wife gaze at each other in silence. In the beginning of this poem, the author points out that it has been 10 years since his wife’s death and then expresses his missing for his dead wife. His wife’s grave is so far from him that he seldom has the opportunity to express his sadness before her grave. Then he imagines that even if they can meet again, they may be not able to recognize each other because of aging faces. In the third sentence, “里” is a traditional Chinese municipal unit of length. 1 里 is equal to 500 meters. Different from the Chinese units of length measurement, english-speaking countries mainly use English units such as mile, yard, foot, inch, etc. Although both “里” and “miles” are unit of length, they do not refer to the same length. A mile is equivalent to about 3.22 里. Therefore, “千里” in the original text does not equal to “a thousand miles”.

As a matter of fact, some translators may directly introduce the unit of length “li” into target culture. For example, when translating the sentence “千里江陵一日还” written by Li Bai, the Yangs (the couple Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie) offered the translation “A thousand li to Jiangling only takes a day”. Although target readers do not know what “li” means, but according to the context they can infer that “li” may be a unit of distance because of the number before the word and the place after the word. In this way, the translation not only continues the spread of Chinese culture in English-speaking countries, but also makes English culture richer and more absorbable. Through cultural borrowing, it can not only promote the infiltration and exchange of Chinese and English culture, but also enrich and develop their respective cultures, which is really a double benefit.

===== Cultural Substitution=====
Bassnett points out that actually “Translator operates criteria that transcend the purely linguistic, and a process of decoding and recoding takes place”(Bassnett, 1980:16). Translators during translating procedures should make the TL and the SL equal in function and let the TL readers in the TL culture get the same response as the SL readers in the SL culture. From the above, the translator can get rid of the limitation of the literary images of the ST and rewrite or even change the form of originals if there exist conflicts between cultures. In this case, cultural substitution can be adopted by translators. Some substitutes in the target culture can be found to replace the counterpart of the source culture and get the same effect on the foreign readers.

In example 1, The word “太守” of the third sentence “为报倾城随太守” is translated into “magistrate”. In China, “太守” was the highest executive of a county, in charge of ruling the county, recommending virtuous man, deciding on lawsuit pending investigating crafty and evil person, appointing and removing subordinates. “Magistrate” is a title of official in English-speaking countries which refers to a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice. Since there is no translation equivalent of “太守” in target language, “magistrate” is used as a cultural substitute so that target readers are able to get the same response as readers in source language culture.

=== Conclusion ===
The translation studies in the 1980s has highlighted the importance of cultural turn in translation and provided effective guidance for translation practice. More and more translators begin to turn to the cultural perspective. Basnet's view of cultural translation puts culture in the first place and holds that translation is not a simple linguistic conversion, but a cultural exchange. This theory undoubtedly brought positive significance to the English translation of Su Shi’s poetry. It gives translators the direction -- the poetry translation can not only focus on the understanding on language level, more important is cultural meaning hidden behind the language. By translating poetry in the cultural perspective can translation meet the need of different groups under different culture and achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.

By analyzing how to deal with specific Chinese cultural items, the author found that cultural default and cultural differences may cause misunderstanding of the original poem. And the combination of literal and free translation and the synthesis of domestication and foreignization can promote target readers’ understanding and the spread of Chinese culture to some extent. And when it comes to cultural differences, cultural borrowing and cultural substitution may play an effective role in improving translation quality. The paper also demonstrates the feasibility of cultural turn theory in guiding the English translation of Su Shi’s poems, aiming to make the English translation of Su Shi's poems more in line with people's demands for cultural exchange. The view of cultural turn emphasizes the position of culture in translation, attaches importance to the role of translators in translation, and gives translators free space to play. Under the guidance of the cultural turn theory, it is possible to achieve a basic agreement between the ways in which the target language text and the source language play or undertake their functions in the target language culture and the source language culture by adopting appropriate translation strategies. Furthermore, it is also possible to make the target language reader feel roughly the same as the source language reader.

As for the limitation of thie paper, firstly, a more objective result cannot be achieved due to the limited time and a restricted number of examples. Secondly, the example illustrated will have more explanatory power if more examples are collected. Thirdly, the theory of cultural turn still needs to be improved. For example, Bassnett does not elaborate on the specific methods to achieve cultural equivalence in translation, which is exactly the direction that translation researchers need to work on. However, the author believes that as long as translators correctly understand and use it, it will play a guiding role in the translation of Su Shi’s poems. It is hoped that the advice can provide a new studying perspective on this subject for other researchers.

Written by --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:39, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

[1]Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies, 3rd Edition [M]. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.

[2]Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture. London: Cassell. 1990.

[3]Bassnett, Susan, Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, Susan Bassnett & André Lefevere,Constructing Cultures Essays on Literary Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[4]Shuttleworth, M &Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004

[5]徐婷婷. 华兹生英译苏轼诗词研究:文学他国化视角[D].广东外语外贸大学,2021.

[6]许渊冲.苏轼诗词[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社，2007.

[7]刘小影. 文化翻译观下的李白诗歌英译[D].河北大学,2013.

[8]谢天振.创造性叛逆:争论、实质与意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(02):33-40.

[9]谢天振.翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J].中国比较文学,2006(03):1-14.

[10]曾文雄.对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J].外语研究,2006(03):45-47+80.

[11]曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J].外语学刊,2006(02):90-96.DOI:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2006.02.016.

The cultural turn

2021-12-08T14:36:31Z

Huang Yiyan1: /* 黄逸妍On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory */

'''The Cultural Turn'''

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=金晓童An analysis of the causes and influences of "cultural turn" in translation history =
'''浅析翻译研究历史中“文化转向”的原因和影响'''

金晓童 Jin Xiao, Hunan Normal University, China
[[Cult_Turn_EN_1]]
=== Abstract ===
The Culture Turn theorie of translation studies was initially put forword by Bassnett Susan and Andre Lefevre in 1990 in the book Translation, History and Culture: A Source book in which they affirmed that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goses in special cultural environment. Since then, the history of translation as a simple tool for the conversion of languages is fading away and gradually transformed into a carrier of culture. There is no doubt that there are differences among different cultures. As a “bridge”, translation plays an intermediary role in the communication between different cultures. However, in the context of globalization becoming the mainstream, the most important problem for translation in the face of cultural differences is how to deal with different cultures. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the causes of cultural turn, seek the positive and negative effects of cultural turn, and further elaborate on the enlightenment of cultural turn to all countries, especially to China, from the perspective of globalization.

=== Key Words ===
Culture Turn, causes, positives and negative effects, enlightenment

=== 摘要 ===
翻译研究的文化转向理论最早是由苏姗·巴斯奈特和安德烈·勒菲弗尔于1990年在《翻译、历史与文化论集》一书中提出的，他们认为翻译不是简单的两种语言之间的转换，而是在特殊的文化环境中进行的。自此，翻译单纯作为语言之间的转换工具的历史正在消逝，逐渐转变成为一种文化的载体。毋庸置疑，不同民族的文化之间具有差异性，翻译作为一座“桥梁”，起着不同文化交流的中介作用。而在全球化成为主流的大环境下，翻译在面对不同文化的差异时，最需要解决的问题就是如何对待不同的文化。因此本文旨在探究文化转向的原因，以寻求文化转向产生的积极影响和消极影响，并进一步阐述在全球化视角下文化转向给各国特别是中国所带来的启示。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向，原因，积极和消极影响，启示

=== Title ===
An analysis of the causes and enlightenments of "cultural turn" in translation history from the perspective of globalization

=== Introduction ===
As a messenger of culture communication, translation plays an irreplaceable role in the process of spreading a country's culture. In human history, translation is an activity of exchange and interaction between different cultures, and culture is closely related to translation. Since the second half of the 20th century, contemporary western translation theory has undergone two turns, namely linguistic turn and cultural turn. Cultural turn makes translation studies no longer regard translation as an isolated fragment between language transformations, but examine translation in a grand cultural context. "Fidelity" is no longer the only goal translators pursue in translation, and the cultural differences between source language and target language are the focus of translators' attention. In recent years, Cultural Turn in translation studies has gradually become the focus of attention of translation researchers and cultural researchers, and more and more people pay more attention to the role of culture in translation. In the context of globalization, international exchanges are becoming more frequent and cultural exchanges among countries are gradually increasing. Cultural factors are also playing an increasingly important role in the development of translation studies. "Cultural Turn" adds a new dimension to translation studies and provides a research horizon. But at the same time, we should fully recognize the challenges posed by its limitations to the development of translation studies in the future. This paper is divided into three chapters: The first chapter briefly introduces what the "Cultural Turn" theory is; The second chapter primarily analyzes the internal and external causes of "Cultural Turn" in translation history from the internal necessity of translation itself and the external thrust of social influence. The third chapter mainly explores the positive and negative influences of the theory of cultural turn, and expounds the enlightenment brought by these influences under the background of globalization, that is, we should dialectically treat the Cultural Turn in translation, not lose the native culture in the mutual learning of cultures, and actively spread the native culture to promote the common progress of culture.

=== Literature review ===
==== Background of Cultural Turn ====
As a concept, culture first appeared in the Middle Ages of Europe and it becomes an eternal theme in the development of human beings, because culture involves all aspects of human life. However, as a discipline to study and form a systematic "cultural study" began in the 1950s. In fact, the rise and development of post-colonialism, feminism and the emergence and rapid spread of the Internet have made cultural studies necessary. In 1957, Hoggart published The Uses of Literacy, and Williams published Culture and Society 1780 － 1950 in 1958.Moreover, in 1964 The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) was founded at the University of Birmingham. All these marked the beginning of cultural studies. Since the early 1980s, "cultural studies" has been developed rapidly in many countries, and its research scope has also been expanded, showing a multi-disciplinary development trend. The study of Western culture has gone through more than half a century，Easthope classified the study of Western culture into three stages: (1)in the 1960s，we were devoted to expanding the concept of culture and making it cover mass culture, which was called the "Culturalist Phase"; (2)in the 1970s，we paid attention to the exploration of textualism and hegemonism, which was called the "Structuralist Phase"; (3) the "post-structuralist Phase" was characterized by the establishment of cultural pluralism. It can be seen that "cultural studies" is a kind of interdisciplinary and cross-field research with a very broad content. Therefore, the "cultural turn" proposed by Basnett appeared in the 1990s. In fact, with the rise of "cultural studies", translation as a cultural activity is inevitable and has been combined with cultural studies, the real "cultural turn" in translation studies began much earlier than the 1990s.

With the development of translation studies in China, culture has gradually received attention. There are some translation theories and opinions scattered in Chinese Buddhist scriptures during the Han and Tang dynasties. Later, Lin Yutang, although Yan Fu and Zhao Yuanren have not made a systematic exposition of cultural translation, their views on translation studies are also consistent with cultural translation theory. In the contemporary time, Liu Shan is the first person to study the relationship between translation and culture as the subject. He pointed out that the accuracy and fidelity of translation depends on the reproduction of thoughts and culture reflected in another language, and stated the fact that the society at that time required translators to expand their cultural horizon. Moreover, Wang Zuoliang also realized the mutual influence between translation and culture, he emphasized that translators must understand both their own national culture and foreign culture. In the 1990s, the Cultural Turn theorie was introduced into China, and more domestic scholars stepped into the wave of cultural research. For example, Wang Bingqin's Cultural Translation studies is regarded as the beginning of China's cultural translation research, and this book laid an important foundation for the subsequent research. Liu Miqing's work of the same period, Outline of Cultural Translation, also exerted a profound influence on later studies. Yang Shizhang (2001) demonstrated in detail the interactive relationship between translation and culture from two aspects of the role of translation in cultural development and the promotion and restriction of culture on translation. Xu Jun (2002) pointed out that there were problems in Chinese translation studies, such as stressing technology over meaning, language over culture, etc. So he proposed to promote the establishment of cultural translation view. These scholars' active discussion on the relationship between translation and culture and its extension undoubtedly laid a solid foundation for the subsequent translation studies from the cultural perspective. In recent years, although it has been widely acknowledged that the western cultural turn is of great significance to translation studies, the theory of cultural turn tends to be far away from ontological studies, so that some scholars call for translation studies to return to ontology. The debate on cultural turn in translation studies has aroused the constant thinking and exploration of domestic scholars.

Throughout the western and Chinese translation studies, it can be found that the theories and practices related to cultural translation in foreign countries have a long history, starting from the 1960s to the early 1970s. Until the 1980s, the relevant research theory content gradually enriched. In the 1990s, because of the “Cultural Turn” theorie, western researchers paid more attention to cultural and social contexts in translation studies. Cultural consciousness in western translation studies has been more complete. The research on cultural translation in China began in the 1980s. Although it was a little later than that in western world, it caught up with the pace very fast, so that cultural translation has rapidly become an important part of the field of translation studies in China. Since the 1990s, some researchers did systematical research on cultural translation studies. However, although the theory is not that well developed, the achievements of domestic cultural translation studies are still improving.

==== Brief introduction: the schools, viewpoints and development of Cultural Turn in translation studies ====
The Cultural Turn in translation studies, advocated and developed by the cultural school, began in the late 1980s. It studies the cultural origin of translation and explores the political, economic, social, ideological and other cultural backgrounds of translation, which is closely related to the rise and prosperity of culturology. Looking back on the history, after the 1970s, under the influence of the booming trend of deconstruction, translation studies developed in the direction of diversification. Even Zohar, an Israeli scholor, proposed Polysystem Theory, which places translated literature at the historical and social levels of the target culture and breaks away from the static study of texts. Later, Toury proposed Descriptive Translation Studies and norms of translation behavior, adding cultural Studies to Translation Studies further. The multiple systems school represented by Even Zohar and Toury is regarded as the prelude to the rise of the cultural school (Pan Wenguo, 2002), and their theories are regarded as the germination of the cultural turn in Western translation. In Description of translation and others (1995), Toury described the function of translation, translation products and the relationship between the translation process, he thinks that function of translation decided the form of translation products, which determines the translation strategies. At the same time, the culture of the target language has an important influence on translation products and activities. In a word, the target language culture itself determines the function, form and strategy of translation. Then came the school of purpose, manipulation and deconstruction. In 1990, two major figures in translation studies: Susan Bassnett, a British scholar in comparative literature and translation studies, and Andre Lefevere, an American scholar in comparative literature and translation studies, explicitly proposed the "Cultural Turn" theorie in translation studies in the book Translation, History and Culture. In the following years, they published some influential papers and books on the "cultural turn" in translation studies. In 1992, Lefevere published three books on translation studies: Translation, rewriting and the manipulation of literary fame, Translation, History and Culture: A Source book and, Translating literature: practice and theory in a comparative literature context. Among these books, Translation, rewriting and the manipulation of literary fame can be viewed as the representative work of Lefevere. In this book, he proposed the concept of "manipulation", believing that translation is rewriting, and that the mainstream ideology, poetics, patrons and other factors restrict or control translation activities. Then the cultural or manipulative school of translation studies was born. In 1994, Basnett edited Cross-cultural Communication: The Warrick Papers on Translation Studies. She pointed out that translation is a complex activity which involves questions such as how to choose the text to be translated, role of the translator in the selected text, roles of editors, publishers, or sponsor, what strategies the translator will take according to different criteria, how the text in the target system to be able to accept.。In 1998, after Lefebvre's death, the last book they wrote together, Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation, was published. These subsequent publications further expanded the influence of the translation cultural school, which gradually replaced the traditional linguistic school and became the mainstream school of translation studies today.

Of course, the above is only a review of the viewpoints of the representative figures and literary schools of "Cultural Turn". In fact, since the 1980s, "Cultural Turn" has become a fact, which also includes the development of "post-modern" translation theories such as deconstruction, feminism and post-colonialism. After the "Cultural Turn" theorie of translation was put forward, many scholars believed that translation has stepped out of the limitations of the traditional linguistic school, entered the wave of cultural studies and stepped onto a broader research space. Translation studies increasingly involved more fields such as ideology, ethnicity, race, feminism and so on. For example, Basnett published The theory and practice of Postcolonial Translation in 1999. Nida, the head of the linguistics school, also began to pay attention to cultural issues in his works in the 1990s. Louise von Flotow published Translation and Gender: Translating in the 'Era of Feminism' (1997), and Spivak (G. C. Spivak) has made a discussion on translation, the politics of translation, feminism and post-colonialism. American scholar L. Venuti proposed some such as "foreignization" and "domestication" and so on. Venuti believes that works translated into English since the 17th century are basically "domesticating translation", while most English translations into other languages are "foreignizing translation", which actually reflects the inequality between cultures. As a result, he thinks the "foreignizing translation" should be taken when translating the world affairs into English, it is a wise cultural interference, which contribute to change the language hegemony of English countries and the unequal status of culture in the global exchanges. This is a rejection of ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and cultural imperialism, and is conducive to the promotion of democracy in global geopolitical relations. The above views can be regarded as either the influence or the continuation of the "Cultural Turn" in translation studies.

=== The causes of “Cultural Turn”in translation history ===
"Cultural Turn" has become a trend, not only because it breaks through the previous theory with its own advantages, but also because of the influence of cultural turn and other external factors. Therefore, it can be said that the trend of "Cultural Turn" is produced under the joint action of internal and external factors.

==== The internal causes ====
The internal drive of "Cultural Turn" mainly comes from some positive views of the cultural school. They strongly advocated the transfer of the focus of translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, and oppose the view which considered translation as a simple language transformation. Therefore, they tried their best to change the subsidiary status of translation in literature and art, and actively promoted translation to become an independent discipline.

===== Self-development of translation studies =====
Before the 20th century, western translation theory had been regarded as the "subordination" of literature and art. In this context, translation was merely regarded as an art, emphasizing the reproduction of the original text by the target text. Translation was even considered as a branch of comparative literature. In 1921, the German scholar W. Benjamin pointed out in his book The Task of The Translator that "If the ultimate essence of translation is to strive for similarity to the original, then no translation is possible." This view actually shows that the pursuit of linguistic absolute "faith" is not feasible in theory and in practice. In other words, the study of translation should break away from the excessive concern about words and turn to a more far-reaching and broad level, namely the cultural level. In 1971, Holmes put forward his unique views on the Nature, scope and structure of translation as an independent research field in the book The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Since then, Translation Studies began to transform into an independent discipline, and The Name and Nature of Translation Studies is regarded as the declaration of independence of Translation Studies.

===== The importance attached by cultural school to culture =====
"Cultural school", as its name implies, attaches importance to the role of culture in translation and emphasizes the constraints of culture on translation. The cultural school has played an important role in promoting translation as an independent discipline. From Holmes, the founder of the cultural school, to the leading figures Snell-Hornby, Andre Lefevere and Susan Bassnett, they all mentioned the importance of culture to language and translation in their monographs (Jin Yi, Zhu Xiaomei, 2011). Basnett once said, " Translation studies is actually an independent discipline. It is neither a subsidiary discipline of comparative literature studies nor a certain area of linguistic studies, but an extremely rich field of study with numerous sub-disciplines of its own." Later, she emphasized again in her book Comparative Literature published in 1993 that " When comparative literature is debating for itself whether it can become an independent discipline, translation studies has boldly declared itself to be an independent discipline, and the influence and force of translation studies have been affirmed and supported worldwide (Susan Bassnett 1993：160)." In addition, Basnett's graphic description of culture and language expresses her emphasis on culture. She points out that "culture is like a human body, and language is the heart of the body. Only the interaction between the heart and the body can sustain human vitality. Therefore, when surgeons operate on the heart, they cannot ignore the whole body carrying the heart. This is why it is dangerous for translators to separate text from culture and treat it in isolation." (Susan Bassnett 2004：22). According to professor Zeng Wenxiong, the origin of the cultural school can be traced back to the rationalism of Descartes in the 17th century, even to the skepticism of Perot and the materialism and evolution of Darwin, "These skeptical and survival of the fittest concepts subvert god and all the social and ethical structures that people take for granted, and then develop deconstructivism, post-colonialism and feminism that contain rebellion and independence."

In short, the cultural school’s emphasis on culture is also reflected in its translation theory, the cultural school believes that "faithful" translation is impossible, so it pursues the cultural equivalence between the source text and the target text, that is, the equivalence of cultural functions. The research question has changed from how to be faithful to the source text to the causes and results of the target text's failure to be faithful to the source text. Translation should not be limited to the description of the source text, but pay attention to the functional equivalence of the text in the target language culture. Translation is to meet the needs of culture and the needs of different groups in a certain culture. Obviously, the development of cultural studies and the establishment of the cultural school have greatly promoted the consideration of cultural factors in various fields. In the field of translation, cultural studies and the cultural school have improved the cultural awareness of scholars, which has become a key factor for the rise of the "Cultural Turn". Thus, translation finally became an independent subject with its own characteristics under the strong advocacy of the cultural school, and laid a foundation for the rise of "Cultural Turn" in translation studies.

==== The external causes ====
The development of translation studies and the influence of the cultural school promoted the birth of "Cultural Turn" theorie. At the same time, the limitation of linguistic school, the prevalence of cultural studies, the emergence of the theory of multiple systems and of deconstructivisme sped up the process of "Cultural Turn" in translation studies.

===== Limitations of the linguistic school =====
The linguistic school represented by Nida, Newmark and Catford have reached a "dead end" in translation studies at the end of the 20th century. Translation studies under the linguistic paradigm took structuralist linguistics and transformational generative grammar as theoretical frameworks, they paid attention to the correspondence between the original text and the translated words in the process of translation. Although such correspondence seems to be very scientific, it ignored many factors behind the words. Therefore, the study of linguistic school was considered by some scholars to be too standardized. However, for literary texts, the simple study of words and sentences can not reflect the relationship between the original text and the target text well to some extent, because literary texts contain more and more complex cultural factors behind the language. This translation equivalence theory takes the text itself as the object of translation, "it reduces the aesthetic problem to the logical problem, and ignores the descriptive study of the important factors such as the culture of the target language, the purpose and motivation of translation", which is too standardized. Therefore, the disadvantages of translation studies of the linguistic school became increasingly prominent and were gradually criticized by many scholars (Ran Shiyang, Li Defeng, 2012:4). Andre Lefevere and Susan Bassnett criticized the linguistic school in the book Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation, "The success of machine translation makes people believe that the linguistic method of translation is an effective method... At the same time, they (linguists) said that their translation methods are not applicable to literary translation because literary translation is very special. Isn't literature written in language? Is the language of literature really so different from the language of translators?" (Yang Yan, 2010:101). It can be seen from the above citation that the theories of the linguistics school have been difficult to explain many problems and phenomena in the process of translation, which has been questioned by some experts and scholars. This provides the possibility for the emergence of a new paradigm in translation studies called "Cultural Turn".

===== The prevalence of cultural studies =====
Cultural studies originated in the United Kingdom in the 1950s, followed by a wave of cultural studies in Canada, Australia, the United States and China. Since the 1970s and 1980s, cultural studies have entered a period of interdisciplinary and diversified development. Sociology, literary theory, media studies, film and anthropology have all become the objects of cultural studies.The gradual rise of cultural studies made many scholars turn their attention to the discussion of cultural issues in translation studies, and analyzed the deeper cultural communication implied by language. Therefore, they no longer focused on the careful choice of words in the process of translation, but from the macro level to explore more profound cultural causes, thus contributing to the upsurge of "Cultural Turn" in translation studies.

===== Inspiration of the Polysystem theory =====
The Polysystem theory was first proposed by the Israeli scholar Even-Zohar in the 1970s. He borrowed from Russian formalists who worked in literary historiography that literary works were not independent objects but should be regarded as part of the whole literary system. Before that, people's research on translation was static, while the Polysystem theory links translated works with social, historical and cultural factors. He believed that a polysystem system is composed of several subsystems, in which some subsystems are located at the center and others at the edge. Their positions and status are not fixed, but they compete with each other for a central position in the system. In addition, there are also interrelated and interactive relations between them. Therefore, as a member of many subsystems, translatology and other subsystems must be involved and influenced each other. Zohar mentioned that the culture of a country or a place may have advantage or disadvantage when compared to another culture in different periods. In different situation, translators in a country or a place will choose different translation strategies. If this situation changes, the translator's choice of translation strategies will also change, which forms a dynamic translation study. Therefore, Even-Zohar's polysystem theory makes people no longer look at translation and text in isolation, but combine multiple subsystems such as culture, society, politics and economy to look at the translation process from a broader perspective, and promote the emergence of cultural turn in translation. As student of Zohar, Toury offered new ideas as well as inherited his views. Then Toury put forward translation norms to judge the acceptability of texts by placing them within the target cultural system. These norms are certain social and cultural restrictions on culture, society and times, and people need to be educated and socialized to obtain them. It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on social and cultural aspects. He believed that translation should be examined from the perspective of target language culture, "Translation is always limited by different social and literary background factors, so it has no fixed characteristics, and translation becomes a relative name relying on historical and cultural forces"(Gentzler 1993：129). It can be said that their views provided the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for the theory of "Cultural Turn". The view of culture in polysystem theory has inspired the scholars of cultural school and finally led the translation studies to the rad of "Cultural Turn". Zhang Nanfeng once discussed in his article the positive effect of the polysystem theory on "Cultural Turn", he pointed out: "The polysystem theory has opened up a new approach to translation studies that is descriptive, systematic-oriented, functionalist and systematic. It has promoted the cultural turn of translation studies and spawned a cross-border school of translation studies."

===== The infiltration of deconstructive thought =====
Destructuralism, also known as post-structuralism, is a trend of thought established in the process of criticizing structuralism, and its main representative is Jacques Derrida. The philosopher Jacques Derrida, while criticizing structuralism, innovatively proposed the "deconstructive" theory, which has a profound influence on translation theory, cultural theory and literary criticism theory. Deconstructivists represented by Derrida denied the idea that language has ultimate meaning held by the language school, and believed that language words contain multiple meanings, so the meaning of the text formed by language words should be multiple. In addition, he also believed that the author is not the only creator of the text, which undoubtedly played an important role in enhancing the status of the translation and the subjectivity of the translator. Benjamin abandoned the traditional translation studies that only focused on the semantic meaning of the original text and the deconstruction of language. He believed that articles could survive only through translation, and that traditional translation could only be achieved in the environment of "pure language". If the original text needs translation to survive and spread, then the status of the translator and the translation should be higher than the original author and the original text, because to a certain extent, the former determines whether the article can obtain new life in the new language environment. If the original text needs translation to survive and spread, then the status of the translator and the translation should be higher than the original author and the original text, because to a certain extent, the former determines whether the article can obtain new life in the new language environment. In short, many views of deconstructivisme have a strong role in inspiring and promoting "Cultural Turn". In addition, deconstructive translation thought puts more emphasis on many other factors that affect the text, such as ideology. The pluralism of meaning and pluralism of interpretation advocated by deconstructivisme theory enlighten the cultural schools, leading them to think about the relationship between source text and target text from a more macroscopic and completely different perspective, subverting the traditional view of translation. As Professor Wang Ning said, "Deconstructivisme plays an important role in promoting the cultural turn in contemporary translation studies" (Wang Ning, 2009:127) .

=== The influences of “Cultural Turn” under the background of globalization ===
Any kind of theory has its advantages and limitations, so when looking at "Cultural Turn", it is the right choice to maintain rational mind and critical thinking and treat it objectively and dialectically.

==== The positives effects ====
The "Cultural Turn" theorie of translation studies raised the paradigm of translation studies from the pure language level to the broader cultural level, made the translation experts and scholars begin to consider power, poetics and the target language culture, the translator and the reader, and many other factors on translation institute, which broadened the field of translation study so that translation was no longer in vacuum environment.

The influence of cultural school on translation studies is mainly reflected in the political characteristics of its theories, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalism translation studies derived from historical events. Among them, a scholar of feminist translation Simon expressed her praise for “Cultural Turn”, pointing out that it is the most exciting progress in translation studies, because it means that translation studies have added an important dimension, which enables us to understand the organic connection between translation and other ways of communication. It regards translation as a writing practice that runs through all the strains of cultural expression (Zeng Wenxiong, 2006:92). Looking at China, there are many experts and scholars who have a positive attitude towards the "Cultural Turn", such as Xie Tianzhen, Ran Shiyang, Feng Yawu and so on. Among them, Feng Yawu and Liu Quanfu clearly expressed their support for "Cultural Turn" in their articles "Cultural Turn" and "Cultural Translation Paradigm": "Cultural turn has awakened the cultural consciousness of translation researchers, greatly broadened their horizons, expanded the scope of translation studies, and added a new dimension of history and culture to the study of translators". Cultural turn has exerted an important influence on translation studies in China, which is enlightening and thought-provoking. Liu Xiaoqian once pointed out in her article that the cultural turn in translation studies has brought unprecedented opportunities to Translation studies in China. However, China is still a "weak country" in the field of translation studies. In terms of translation practice, there are more target works than source works. In translation theory, there are few influential theories and works created, and most of modern and contemporary theories are "taken" from foreign countries. Moreover, the cultural turn is characterized by interdisciplinary research, which warns Chinese translation researchers to have a higher level and constantly improve themselves. Therefore, translators in China should actively promote the "going out" of Chinese culture and contribute to the development of translation studies in China by taking advantage of the wind of "cultural turn" that has not yet disappeared. There is no doubt that the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies is of positive significance to the development of Translation studies in China.It has broken the shackles of translation studies within the linguistic system, shifted its focus from the microscopic linguistic transformation to the macroscopic cultural one, provided a new dimension for translation studies, and promoted the transformation of translation studies from "normative studies" to "descriptive studies" under the linguistic framework. Thus it provides a development platform for translation studies, broadening the horizon of translation studies, and lays the foundation for translation studies as an independent discipline. However, it should be emphasized that "Cultural Turn" is only a research perspective in multiple translation studies, and has its advantages and disadvantages like other paradigms (Zeng Wenxiong, 2005).

==== The negative effects ====
With the expansion of the research scope and the deepening of the research content, many problems have been exposed in translation studies under the "Cultural Turn", which has aroused the extensive thinking of domestic scholars. Although the cultural school broke through the shackle of the linguistic school and innovatively put forward the "Cultural Turn", the cultural school did not critically inherit and develop the theories and methods of the linguistic school, but blindly negated, subverted, disintegrated and abandoned them completely. In the view of the cultural school, translation studies before cultural translation lack the macroscopic theoretical guidance and cannot see into the functions and effects of translation. Only by combining culture with translation studies can the true meaning of cultural functions be obtained, thus forming a theoretical system guiding translation practice (Zhang Cancan, Zhang Lili, 2008). Therefore, the extreme practice that his focus completely deviates from the text itself and shifts to the macro context has been criticized by later generations. In addition, because the cultural school advocates the study of translation in the context of society, history, language environment and culture, emphasizing the restriction of culture on translation, and attaches importance to the connection and combination between translation and linguistics, translation and literature, translation and poetics. As a result, some experts and scholars have raised doubts about the "cultural turn" at this point. In China, such as Zeng Wenxiong, Zhao Yanchun and so on all hold a negative attitude to the "cultural turn". Zhao Yanchun (2004) once pointed out that "the culture school emphasizes the restrictive function of cultural factors such as power relations, sponsors, ideology, mainstream poetics and others on translation, and try to deny the traditional research on translation within the text. Therefore, they exaggerate the restrictive function of culture, and it is impossible to summarize the rules for predicting translation phenomena and processes". Its all-embracing openness makes the disciplinary boundaries of translation studies blurred. According to Zeng Wenxiong, the "cultural turn" has limited the scope of translation studies, narrowed the research field, blurred the disciplinary boundaries of translation studies, separated from the fundamental of translation-language, exaggerated the influence of factors other than text, and thus made it difficult to discover the fundamental laws of translation. However, the foundation of translation studies is language and text, and the excessive emphasis on external factors without language studies will undoubtedly push translation studies into a dangerous situation by infinitely amplifying the role of external factors in the translation process. Since its birth, Chinese translation activities have been accompanied by the introduction and absorption of foreign cultures. For example, the large-scale introduction and absorption of Western learning in the late Qing Dynasty, the New Chinese literature constructed under the influence of translated literature in the May Fourth Movement period and so on. While absorbing foreign cultures, we should not ignore the "localization" of culture. The same is true of the cultural turn in translation studies. Wang Ning, in his book The Cultural Turn of Translation Studies, also put forward such a point of view: it is worth noting that the cultural school of translation studies is based on comparative literature and studies translation phenomena from the perspective of western studies. The great difference between culture and language reminds us that we should not ignore the actual situation of the construction of traditional translation studies and theories in China while drawing lessons from western translation theories and research achievements. In this regard, from the perspective of discipline construction, many domestic scholars have proposed that translation studies under the cultural turn should not ignore the study of translation ontology, and that translation studies should return to the study of translation ontology and adhere to the standard characteristics of translation discipline.

=== Conclusion ===
Due to the development of translation itself, the influence of the polysystem theory, the cultural school, deconstructivisme and other theories, the "Cultural Turn" emerged in the 1990s, breaking the model of translation studies that had lasted for thousands of years, breaking out of the rigid language level and placing translation in the dynamic history, culture and society. It has explained many translation phenomena that cannot be explained by the traditional school of linguistics. It not only adapts to the development of the times, but also is the inevitable way out of translation studies. Cultural turn is not only the inexorable trend of translation activities, but also promotes the diversified development of translation studies. With the development of global integration, translation culture turns to be closely combined with social, political, economic and other factors. Under the influence of this development trend, culture is bound to develop in the exchange and cooperation between countries, which is an inevitable tendency of translation studies.

Nowadays, translation plays an increasingly prominent role in cross-cultural communication as the field of international communication continues to expand. Translation should take the initiative to maintain the historical mission of linguistic diversity and cultural diversity, balance the subject culture and foreign culture, and keep the two cultures in a relatively reasonable range. But the problem lies in the lack of theoretical guidance in concrete practice, wo can only judge according to experience. The subject of translation is affected by many factors, so it is impossible to completely jump out of the subject culture, and the development of translation study is dynamic, with the development of translation theory and the development of The Times, many factors such as translation view and translation stand are constantly changing. Therefore, with the development of the times, we should study the problem dynamically and sum up the guiding ideology constantly, so as to achieve a balance between the subject culture and foreign culture. In the context of globalization, people should pay attention to the relationship between their own culture and foreign culture, and translators, as communicators of cultural exchange, should balance the relationship between the two. Only by treating the externalization objectively, taking its essence and discarding its dregs, making it mutually available with the national culture, innovating the national culture and enhancing the vitality of the national culture, can the Chinese culture endure long and have a long history.

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[6] 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M] 西方翻译简史 A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press，2004.

[7] 彭萍.当代西方翻译研究的“文化转向”和“社会转向”综述[J] A summary of "cultural turn" and "social turn" in Contemporary Western Translation Studies.江西师范大学学报(哲学社会科版,2016(3) Journal of Jiangxi Normal University (Philosophy and social sciences edition), 2016 (3): 141-142.

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[12] 冯亚武，刘全福.“文化转向”与文化翻译范式[J] "Cultural turn" and cultural translation paradigm.西安外国语大学学报 Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University，2008（4）：48.

[13] 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press，2009.

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=李爱璇Cultural Turn in Film and Television Subtitle Translation：a Case Study of ''Empresses in the Palace''=
[[Cult_Turn_EN_2]]
=== Abstract ===
The Culture Turn is a term in the field of translation studies which means that translation studies should not only focus on language, but also carry out their own discussion in a broader historical and cultural perspective. Film and television have always played an important role in the communication and exchange of national cultures. The audiovisual subtitle translation even plays a more critical role. In the previous studies, there are a few studies on subtitle translation strategies, but few scholars explore Empresses in the Palace, a classic Chinese TV drama, from the perspective of Cultural Turn. In this thesis, the author aims to do some research on the translation strategies in audiovisual subtitle translation based on “Cultural Turn”, in order to explore how cultural turn affects audiovisual subtitle translation, and provide a new perspective for later scholars or subtitle translators.

=== Key Words ===
Culture Turn; subtitle translation; ''Empresses in the Palace''; translation strategy

=== 摘要 ===
文化转向是翻译研究领域的一个术语，它意味着翻译研究不仅应该关注语言，而且应该从更广阔的历史和文化视角进行探讨。影视在民族文化的传播和交流中一直发挥着重要作用。影视字幕翻译甚至起着更为关键的作用。在以往的研究中，关于字幕翻译策略的研究并不少，但很少有学者从文化转向的角度来探讨中国经典电视剧《甄嬛传》。本文旨在研究基于“文化转向”的影视字幕翻译中的翻译策略，以探讨文化转向对影视字幕翻译的影响，并为后来的学者或字幕译者提供一个新的视角。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；字幕翻译；《甄嬛传》；翻译策略

=== Title ===
Cultural Turn in Film and Television Subtitle Translation：a Case Study of ''Empresses in the Palace''

=== Introduction ===
==== Backgroud of the Study ====
Throughout the translation studies in the 20th century, there are many schools. Each school competes with and affects each other one after another, which makes translation studies flourish in recent decades and establish its status as an independent discipline. As the publication of ''Translation, History and Cultural'' written by Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere, Culture Turn appeared in people's vision in 1990. The translation view of Cultural Turn has brought a new vision and breakthrough to the translation studies, which has been bound by linguistics for a long time.(Lefevere 2001:70)

==== Significance and Objectives of the Study ====
As an effective mass media in the context of globalization, film and television works, with their unique artistic charm and rich cultural carrier, have promoted the cultural communication and exchange between various countries and cultures, and become a powerful tool to strengthen their own cultural characteristics and cross-cultural communication. With the deepening of cultural exchanges among countries, the study of subtitle translation of film and television works has increasingly highlighted its important significance of the times. In this context of cultural output, how to integrate Chinese culture into the external translation of film and television works has become an important aspect of cultural communication. Cultural differences lead to different understanding of culture, so there are higher requirements for the translation of works. The emergence of “cultural turn” has brought a new wind to the translation circle, provided new ideas for the development of translation methods, and provided a new research field to the translation circle.(Lefevere 2001:70)

==== Study Methods ====
This paper takes the subtitles of the famous Chinese costume drama Empresses in the Palace as the research object, and focuses on its translation strategies against the background of “Cultural Turn”. This paper will use the method of theoretical analysis. Based on the widely accepted English version as the corpus source, the author explores the effect of the English version according to the theory of Domestication and Foreignization and the translation strategies of semantic translation and communicative translation.(Lefevere 2001:70)

=== Literature Review ===
==== On Culture Turn ====
In the 1950s and 1960s, the linguistic view of translation dominated translation studies, and translation was regarded as the transformation between different languages. Those scholars try to use linguistic theories (such as semantics, semiotics, pragmatics, etc.) to construct the discipline theory of translation studies. Their representatives are Jakobson, Catford, Nida and Newmark. However, this linguistic view of translation cannot solve the social, cultural, and historical problems well encountered in translation, and translation is affected by the differences of different cultures in ways of thinking and emotional expression. (Zhang Jing Li Shuchun 2006:83)

Since the 1960s, some scholars in Europe, especially in Britain, have successively published some articles and Monographs on studying the class system and reexamining the cultural connotation, which marks the rise of culturology. In the 1970s, scholars represented by Even-Zohar put forward the polysystem theory. This school believes that "literary works are an integral part of the overall framework of society, culture, literature and history" and "the isolated research of a single text is placed in the multi system of culture and literature". (Munday 2001:109;111)

This view has broken through the traditional view of linguistic translation and can be regarded as the bud of cultural turn, although it still does not completely get rid of the shackles of linguistics. Later, Lambert and robyns thought that translation was "less as an interactive process and more as an internal activity". (Gentzler 1993:186)

Later, the academic conference held in Belgium marked the establishment of translation as an independent discipline. Bassnett and Lefevere inherited and developed the polysystem theory and formally put forward the “cultural turn” in translation studies in their book Translation, History, and Culture in 1990. The Cultural School of translation breaks through the linguistic school, which focuses on the comparison and transformation between different languages, and connects translation with society, history, and culture. The “cultural turn” of the cultural school turns the paradigm of translation studies from the pure language level to the translation activities that explore the interaction and restriction of cultural level and various factors, outlines the framework of translation studies, and provides a new research paradigm for translation studies. The cultural turn in translation studies is neither a theory nor a school, but an ideological trend. It refers to the gradual shift from translation studies to cultural studies, that is, to study how culture affects and manipulates the translator, the translation process, and the translated text, and how translation affects the target language culture.(Lefevere 2001:130)

==== On Audiovisual Subtitle Translation ====
The rendering in a different language of verbal message in film media, in the shape of one or more lines of written text, presented on the screen in sync with the original verbal message. (cited in orero 2004:86). Firstly, from the perspective of linguistics, subtitle translation can be divided into intralingual subtitles and interlingual subtitles. The former is mainly responsible for transforming discourse into text. At this time, the language itself has not changed. From the perspective of time, subtitles can be divided into pre-prepared subtitles and live or real time subtitles. Interlingual subtitle translation is the process of translating the source language into the target language while retaining the original sound, and synchronously displaying the target language at the bottom of the screen or picture. The audience can not only feast their eyes on foreign works, but also get as much subtitle information as possible. What we usually call subtitle translation is interlingual subtitle translation. The characteristics of audio-visual language lie in its listening, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity, and non-attention. (Wang 2014:107)

The foreign films introduced in China in the early stage are generally translated by the professional film and television translation department of TV stations or film studios. This translation model has many disadvantages, such as too pursuing commercial value, ignoring artistry and the cultural communication function of subtitles. Today, with the development of network technology, the monopoly of subtitle translation by professional film and television translation departments has been broken, and a large number of voluntary film and television subtitle translation teams have emerged, commonly known as online subtitle groups. In just a few hours after broadcasting abroad, the subtitle group can release subtitles in China, which undoubtedly meets the audience's timeliness needs for film and television works. But at the same time, it should be noted that there are still some problems in the online subtitle group, such as the proliferation of online words, excessive translation cavity, excessive pursuit of translation speed, fuzzy translation standards and so on.(Wang 2014:107)

=== Theoritical Foundation ===
“Translation strategy” is “on the macro level, it mostly refers to the overall assumption, main ways and cultural attitude of conveying the content and form of the original work, such as domestication and alienation; on the micro level, it refers to specific transformation methods or skills, such as substitution, addition, ellipsis, word by word translation, literal translation and annotation, transliteration, as well as sub translation and combined translation. The macro strategy mainly reflects the culture of translation Value orientation; specific methods and techniques are extensive, including both the means of transforming cultural information and the language transformation methods of non-cultural information.”
Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist, is a famous and important figure in the field of translation. He deeply studies the translation thoughts and theories of various schools, has his own unique views on translation, and his discussion on translation theory is incisive and unique. semantic translation and communicative translation are not only the core of Newmark's translation theory, but also the most important part of Newmark’s translation theory.(Jiang 2009:180)

Semantic translation refers to expressing the overall meaning of the original text as accurately as possible within the scope allowed by the semantics and language structure of the target language. Semantic translation is more considered by the original author, trying to ensure that the original author’s unique language expression will not be changed. Semantic translation strives to be accurate and objective, and pays attention to the original author and source language. Therefore, in the process of semantic translation, the text will be interpreted only when there is an objection to the understanding of the original text. However, semantic translation will not ignore readers’reading feelings and understand that the main purpose of the translation is to convey information to readers. Although semantic translation is closer to the language form of the source language, it will still strive to make the translation closer to the reader. Therefore, semantic translation pays more attention to reproducing the thinking process of the original author’s writing.(Zhou 2020:76)

While communicative translation pays more attention to language effect, and strives to make the language effect of the target language on the target readers equal to that of the source language on the original readers as far as possible. Compared with semantic translation, communicative translation is more subjective. Because communicative translation pays more attention to the transmission of language information and the production of language effect, it only pays attention to the reading feeling of the target readers. Communicative translation strives not to cause any reading obstacles and questions to the target readers. Therefore, the translator can also modify the source text appropriately when considering the target language environment and respecting the source text.(Zhou 2020:76)

The domestication“requires the translator to approach the target language readers and adopt the target language expression used by the target language readers to convey the content of the original text.” Sun Zhili believes that the domestication is mainly manifested at the pure language level and can be used as a compromise means to solve the language barrier. However, in translation, language can be transformed or even domesticated, but cultural characteristics should not be changed. If it is not a last resort, it is particularly inappropriate to domesticate, but to convey it as much as possible. Excessive domestication may not play the role of translation in disseminating foreign cultures and customs.(Sun 2003:34)

Compared with the domestication, the foreignization translation method “requires the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text.” Therefore, Sun Zhili pointed out that the core of the foreignization is to convey the “heterogeneous factors” of the original text as much as possible, is to try to convey the exotic cultural characteristics, foreign language forms and the author's abnormal writing techniques of the original work.(Sun 2003:40)

=== Translation Strategies used in the Subtitle Translation of ''Empresses in the Palace'' ===
==== Domestication and Foreignization ====

Subtitle translation of film and television plays is a balanced art, which accurately and appropriately conveys the wonderful plot and language and cultural information to the target audience, so that the audience can obtain the aesthetic experience, but also avoid the obstacles and deficiencies of cultural exchange. The translation of Empresses in the Palace, which has attracted much attention and many difficulties, should achieve a perfect balance between the huge language and cultural differences between China and the United States, and should also combine the two translation strategies of "domestication" and "alienation". Domestication is to use the expression and cultural image of the target language to convey the original meaning and respect the language habits of the target language audience. Foreignization is to use the expression and cultural image of the source language to convey the content of the original text and highlight the “exotic style” of the source language in the translation. (Liu 2017:67)

In the subtitle translation of Empresses in the Palace, the translation strategy of "domestication" is adopted for the cultural factors that are difficult to convert, so as to avoid the obstacles to understanding caused by the translation. For the cultural factors with unique national characteristics that can be transformed, the “alienation” translation strategy can be adopted. It is worth noting that excessive foreignization translation will make the audience of film and television dramas feel obscure and difficult to understand due to the intervention of many foreign cultures, and finally lose their interest in watching. Although excessive domestication translation makes the translation easy to understand, it will lose the text characteristics and exotic flavor of the source language, and make the target audience lose the opportunity and fun to understand foreign culture. For example, the translation of Chinese network catchwords in British costume dramas, or the street speaking of the United States in Chinese court dramas, will destroy the harmonious beauty of the original film and television works.(Liu 2017:67)

In view of the large number of cultural images rich in cultural connotation in Empresses in the Palace, the proper use of foreignization translation can maintain the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics of the original film and television works. (Liu 2017:67)

SL: 袅楚宫腰

TL: the slim waist of the containers of the Chu Palace

For example, the protagonist’s name “Huan Huan” is interpreted to “袅楚宫腰” which is translated into “the slim waist of the containers of the Chu Palace” in the American version. The cultural background of the state of Chu is added here, which reflects the profound cultural connotation of its name and the hero's love for the heroine. However, it may be slightly obscure for the audience of American TV dramas who do not understand the ancient cultural history of China. (Liu 2017:67)
SL:一片冰心在玉壶

TL: a jade vessel is the symbol of a pure heart.

In the play, Wen Shichu quoted this ancient poems to express his confession to Zhen Huan. This interpretative translation explains the symbolic meaning of ice heart and jade vessel, which makes the target audience understand easily. The use of the two translation strategies is not independent. The two strategies can achieve effective combination and appropriate re-creation of the source language content, to transform cultural images, make up for cultural gaps and achieve the purpose of cultural transmission. (Liu 2017:67)

The focus of foreignization translation strategy coincides with the cultural turn to examine translation from a cultural perspective. Through foreignization translation, the translator can try to convey the source language culture to the target language readers, to retain the different cultural characteristics of the source language. Instead of just considering the acceptability and cultural context of the target language readers in order to better achieve the smoothness of the translation. Finally, readers can also examine the gains and losses of the translation by feeling the culture in the original, and gain a new understanding of the culture of other countries to a certain extent. (Liu 2017:67)

The reason why we gradually tend to foreignization translation strategy in the continuous practice of domestication and foreignization is that under the influence of the tension of foreignization translation method, we deeply feel the cultural interaction brought by foreignization translation in the current era of cultural diversity brought about by globalization, and retain and consolidate their own cultural characteristics through foreignization translation, It has also promoted global cultural exchanges. Nevertheless, in the specific translation practice, when facing the choice of translation strategies, it should still be measured and balance the harmony between domestication and foreignization. No translation method can be viewed in isolation, and domestication must also be properly considered when viewing alienation. There is neither complete domestication nor complete alienation. In translation practice, the assistance and cooperation of domestication and foreignization should be considered. Only in this way can there be no farfetched and unreasonable translation in some places. Therefore, properly incorporated domestication translation method can make the translation more in line with the reading habits of target language readers and more acceptable to them.(Liu 2017:67)

==== Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation ====

SL：那就赏夏常在一丈红吧。

TL：Then I will award Attendant Xia the Scarlet Red.

In ''Empresses in the Palace'', this sentence was said by imperial concubine Hua, which meant that Xia Changzai, a women in the emperor's harem who violated the palace rules, would be punished in the palace. It was to take a two inch thick and five foot long wooden board to beat the prisoner below the waist, regardless of the number, until her muscles and bones were broken and her flesh and blood were blurred. It looked bright red from a distance. Therefore, “一丈” in the original text does not represent accurate measurement, and there is no need to translate “一丈红” into “3.33-meter red” in the translation. “Scarlett” in the translation means “sinful, unforgivable and licentious”, while Xia Chang was punished for violating palace rules in the play, so the translation of “the Scarlett Red” is not in line with the plot setting. Although the meaning of “the Scarlett Red” can be better understood by the target language audience, it will cause ambiguity. The derogatory meaning of this word can reflect the irony of the word “award”. Overall, it is feasible, but there is still room for improvement.(Zhou 2020:76)

SL：奴才如此，必然是上梁不正才下梁歪。

TL：They have surely been influenced by the improper behavior of their mistresses．

In ''Empresses in the Palace'', this is imperial concubine Hua’s evaluation of the tyranny of slaves in the imperial palace. She thinks that this is because their masters’ virtue is notorious and is imitated by their subordinates. “The upper beam is not straight and the lower beam is crooked” is a daily saying. In ancient China, most residents lived in houses with civil structures, which were basically composed of buildings, columns, beams, purlins, rafters and so on. “Beam” is a long wood that is erected on the columns along the front and rear directions. Generally, two houses with wooden structure should have three beams and six columns, and the construction process should also be based on precise calculation. Therefore, once the upper beam is misplaced and affects the whole house structure, the lower beam will naturally be crooked. Later, “the upper beam is not right and the lower beam is crooked” was used to compare the main people, such as leaders or elders, who do things against the law and moral standards, and the rest will learn to do so. This idiom in the original text is related to Chinese architectural structure, which may be difficult for the target language readers to understand. Moreover, for the translation of proverbs, we don't need to translate words by words, just translate its connotation. Although the translation of these two sentences has nothing to do with the source language, considering the cultural environment of the target language, the translation will be more in line with the development of the plot.(Zhou 2020:76)

SL：先敬罗衣后敬人。

TL：The clothing completes the person．

In the plot of ''Empresses in the Palace'', Xia Dongchun was accidentally splashed with tea by An Lingrong and humiliated An by virtue of her own background. This line is what Zhen Huan said to An after the event. Its extended meaning is to satirize people by their appearance and judge a person’s character according to their appearance and dress. In the original text, “Luoyi” refers to silk clothes, which is another name for ancient clothes. The Chinese audience knows that it generally refers to clothes, but the target language audience can't understand the ancient Chinese language and culture. Therefore, the translator did not translate the word literally according to the source language, but followed the principle of communicative translation. In order to highlight the language effect, he translated it freely to avoid causing reading difficulties to the target language audience.(Zhou 2020:76)

SL：嬛嬛，你给了朕一对龙凤呈祥。

TL ：Huan Huan，you have given me a dragon and a phoenix of good fortune.

In the plot of ''Empresses in the Palace'', the emperor said this to Zhen Huan, who had just given birth to a pair of twins. “龙凤呈祥” means auspicious events, that is, giving birth to both boy and girl in the play. “Dragon and Phoenix fetus” means twins of a man and a woman, “dragon” describes men and “phoenix” describes women. Therefore, the English translation is “pigeon pair”. However, in translation, the translator did not translate “dragon and phoenix” into “pigeon pair”, but faithfully translated it into “a dragon and a phoenix of good fortune”. This is because in ancient China, “dragon” and “phoenix” were used to refer to emperors, noble people, or people with excellent talents. The emperor's descendants are people of noble status, and the birth of “dragon and Phoenix fetus” in China is a great auspicious thing, so the literal translation of “a dragon and a phoenix of good fortune” can not only express the substantive meaning of the original text, but also correspond to the translation.(Zhou 2020:76)

=== The Influence of Culture Turn on Chinese Costume Drama Subtitle Translation ===

With the development of “cultural turn”, feminist translation theory, postcolonial translation theory and post-imperialist translation theory came into being. Their characteristics are more concerned about politics, race and other political elements. At the same time, people gradually realize that the changes of any element in the cultural system are not independent, but exist and develop in coordination with each other. Under the influence of “cultural turn”, translation is regarded as a rewriting of the original text under specific conditions. The rewriting is produced under the action of history, society, culture and context. The translator puts various factors together to form a new text, in order to solve the untranslatable problem caused by cultural conflict in Translation.(Wang 2014:109)

Language is the carrier of culture, and the presentation of meaning is inevitably affected by cultural factors. In subtitle translation, cultural factors in both the source language and the target language play a key role. As a popular academic topic, cultural research has overwhelmed the general international academic research in the field of social science and art, especially translation research. Translation studies and cultural studies may be two different disciplines. They have a lot in common. They are interdisciplinary sciences and new disciplines in social sciences. Therefore, the development of cultural studies provides experience for the development of translation studies and plays a great role in promoting translation studies.(Wang 2014:109)

During the globalization of economic, cultural and information, the rapid development of mass media has a profound impact on our social life and ideology. As the most intuitive and vivid cultural product and carrier, film and television works are more and more welcomed by the public. Different from ordinary written translation, culture can only be conveyed by symbols. The audio-visual information synchronized with subtitles in film and television works can effectively interpret and convey culture. The multimedia nature of film and television works provides many favorable conditions for overcoming cultural differences.(Wang 2014:109)

The distinctive national cultural characteristics in Empresses in the Palace reflect the cultural and aesthetic value of national film and television works, which is the greatest advantage of Chinese film and television art. In the process of subtitle translation, the appropriate use of translation strategies can avoid the lack and fracture of cultural expression. While respecting the audience’s viewing feelings, it spreads Chinese traditional culture, and combines the mass characteristics of film and television works with the task of cultural communication. Only by showing the traditional oriental culture in modern western language can Chinese film and television works.(Wang 2014:109)

With the development of the film industry and the advent of the information age, the domestic audience’s demand for authentic films is growing. Therefore, subtitles for imported foreign films, especially British and American films, meet the audience's demand to a certain extent. This kind of film after subtitle translation can not only preserve the auditory enjoyment brought by the original language to the audience, but also promote the cultural transmission of film as a media. Subtitle translation is not only the transformation between two languages, but also a cultural transformation and the implantation of the target culture.(Wang 2014:109)

For a long time, film and television subtitle translation has attached great importance to the translation of cultural factors. However, many translators are vulnerable to the influence of conservative mentality such as cultural superiority, ethnocentrism, and cultural stereotypes. They cannot face up to his national culture in the process of translation with an equal attitude, so as to psychologically refuse the infiltration of other cultures, blindly use the way of domestication, and even use words with strong national color. The cultural transmission of translation does not just mean being faithful to the source culture, which will fall into another extreme position. The films produced by various countries have more or less the special brand of their own culture, which is inevitable. The plot, content or characters in the film are derived from life, but higher than life, which itself has cultural uniqueness. (Wang 2014:109)

When dealing with culture related subtitle translation, the translator should first investigate whether the cultural nature of the subtitle must be translated or can be omitted. Secondly, one should pay attention to the continuity and communication of culture, try to select the cultural characteristics that are easy for the target audience to accept, and omit some relevant information that has no great impact on the film. According to different types of films, the requirements for subtitle translation are also different. Comedies require subtitle translators to maximize the laughter of the original language, so that the target language audience can feel it and achieve the purpose of entertaining the public. Tragic films require subtitle translators to use the text of the original language to stimulate the inner resonance of the audience and follow the emotional life and death of the film characters. The requirements of subtitle translators will be different for films with different themes. Therefore, subtitle translation is by no means easy. How to make film and television subtitle translation equal to the original film not only in language, but also in culture is a new challenge for the translation community.(Wang 2014:109)

=== Conclusion ===
This paper mainly analyses the cultural turn in film and television subtitle translation and illustrates it with an example of Empresses in the Palace. The writer tried to find some proper strategies to deal with culture transmission problems in visual-audio subtitle translation especially the translation from Chinese to English, which are the combination of literal translation and free translation and the combination of domestication and foreignization. Translator’s task is to make a full use of those kind of translation strategies to transmit national culture, especially in such a condition of globalization and cultural communication. Moreover, the translation of the subtitle of Empresses in the Palace can be a good example for other translators. (Jiang 2009:14)

However, one case cannot be enough to illustrate the phenomenon of culture turn and there are few good film or television plays in Chinese, let alone the transmission our Chinese culture. Moreover, there must be more translation strategies could be used in subtitle translation, waiting us to explore.(Jiang 2009:14)

=== References ===
[1]张静, 李树春.“文化转向”及其在翻译中的重要性[J] . 沧州师范专科学校学报, 2006, (4).

[2]Bassnett, Susan & Andre Lefevere. Constructing Cultures [C] .Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998/2001

[3]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and applications [ M] . London: Routledge, 2001.

[4]Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories [ M] . London and NewYork: Routledge, 1993.

[5]刘晓辉,张亮.影视剧字幕翻译及跨文化传播——以美版《甄嬛传》为例[J].出版广角,2017(06):64-66.

[6] 姜秋霞.文学翻译与社会文化的相互作用关系研究[M].北京: 外语教育与研究出版社,2009.

[7] 孙致礼.中国文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].中国翻译,2002(1). [3] 孙致礼.新编汉英翻译教程[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2003.

[8] 王宁.翻译研究的文化转向[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2009

[9]周甜甜.纽马克翻译理论视角下美版《甄嬛传》的字幕翻译浅析[J].今古文创,2020(42):76-77.

[10]王思思.从文化转向看中国文化在电影字幕中的翻译[J].山西师大学报(社会科学版),2014,41(S1):107-109.

=李文璇 Research on Translation of Expressions with Chinese Characteristics from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory --Based on the Case Study of ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ''=
[[Cult_Turn_EN_3]]

文化转向视角下中国特色用语英译研究
——以《习近平谈治国理政》（第三卷）为例

李文璇 Li Wenxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

=== Abstract ===
Based on the cultural turn theory, this article studied the C-E translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics from ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ''. Therefore, the author wanted to analyze some effective ways for translating the expressions with Chinese characteristics, exploring the translation trend in the future, thus spreading Chinese culture and enlarging the influence of China.

Key Words：Cultural turn theory; Expressions with Chinese characteristics; Translation.

=== 摘要 ===
本文在文化转向的视角下，分析《习近平谈治国理政》（第三卷）中国特色用语的英译处理方式，期望从中能总结出英译中国特色用语的有效方法，探讨中国特色用语的翻译方法及注意事项，从译本、从而更好传播中国文化、扩大中国影响力。

关键词：文化转向；中国特色用语；翻译

=== Title ===
Research on Translation of Expressions with Chinese Characteristics from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory --Based on the Case Study of ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ''

=== Introduction ===
With the Reform and Opening-up and the enhancement of China’s strength, the international status of China has been improving significantly. In recent years, with going-global strategy and bringing-in strategy, China has been opening up widely and cooperated with other countries towards a shared future. Under this background, Chinese culture is an important part for China to communicate and cooperate with other countries. What’s more, Chinese Socialism in the New Era has attracted worldwide attention, as the academic circles are paying attention to the translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics in foreign publicity translation, especially for those political articles.

Expressions with Chinese characteristics refer to terms and expressions that have the characteristics of Chinese language and culture and that embody the unique things and phenomena in China. In recent years, more and more scholars have studied the English translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics, most of them use German Functionalist Translation Theory, especially Katharina Reiss’s text typology and Vermeer’s Skopos theory. I choose culture turn theory, for the reason that translating these expressions not only should pay attention to the current situation, but also should study in the broad history scope. So, I choose communicative translation theory and I will explore and analyze texts under the guidance of this theory, hoping to provide a new direction for the study of English translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics.

''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ'' contains a complication of 92 of Xi Jinping’s spoken and written works from October 18, 2017 to January 13, 2020. It is a series of articles put forward by Xi Jinping with many original ideas drawn from his experiences in the governance of China in the new era. In this book, there are many expressions with Chinese Characteristics, whose C-E translations are vital for the transmission of Chinese culture. Additionally, the third volume, published in 2020, is one of the latest materials for studying Chinese Socialism in the new era.

By learning the English version of some political writings and watching some videos on the Internet, I’m interested in the translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics. Also, I have learned a lot about Xi Jinping’s thought, which contains useful knowledge for the governance of China. As an English major, by studying the translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics, I can consolidate and deepen my understanding of professional theories and knowledge. Moreover, by studying and practicing different cultural corpora, my intercultural communication ability can get progress.

=== Literature Overview ===

Domestic scholars have made a lot of explorations on the English translation of terms with Chinese characteristics. There are two characteristics as a whole: first, some scholars summarized the appropriate translation strategies and methods by studying the English translation of current political terms and legal terms with Chinese characteristics, which are selected from the English versions of newspapers, political papers and other texts.(Yang, 2006:73-74; Wang, 2020:87-93; Tang, 2013:157-158) Second, under the guidance of particular translation theory, scholars analyzed and studied the English translation of Chinese vocabulary and current political terms selected from the speeches of Chinese leaders and other text in various aspects. For example, most scholars studied the English translation of terms with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of Skopos Theory and explored appropriate English translation strategies. (Lai, 2019; Chen, 2019:55-58)

As far as the domestic research status is concerned, there are still some deficiencies in the research of expressions with Chinese characteristics. First, the theory is relatively unitary. Most scholars use German Functionalist Translation Theory, especially Katharina Reiss’s text typology and Vermeer’s Skopos theory. Secondly, the research sample is limited. Most of the scholars talk about political and economic terms, while there is little research on the translation of classical culture terms with Chinese characteristics. The research on translation methods and strategies of political and economic terms is of little use for the whole translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics. Third, the research on “words with Chinese characteristics” is more than that of “expressions with Chinese characteristics”. When consulting references (June 9, 2021), we can find that there are 69 articles about “expressions with Chinese characteristics” and 484 about “words with Chinese characteristics”. It can be seen that most scholars have done a lot of research on the English translation of words with Chinese characteristics. We should pay more attention to the English translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics, and seek the best way to tell Chinese stories.

=== Brief Introduction to Cultural Turn Theory ===
The cultural turn theory in translation research is to pay attention to the influence of various elements in the process of translation, the influence of the translator's own culture on the original text, and the study of the image of the original text in the context of the translated version. When concepts are transferred from one language to another, meaning is not so much “transformed”, it is better to say that it has been “recreated” in the regional environment of the latter. The main contents of Susan Bassnett’s cultural translation view include: translation should take culture as the unit, not stay on the previous text; Translation is not only a simple decoding and recoding process, but also an act of communication; Translation should not be limited to the description of the original text, but lies in the functional equivalence of the text in the target language culture; Different historical periods have different translation principles and norms, but these principles and norms are ultimately to meet different needs. Translation is to meet the needs of culture and different groups in a certain culture.(Wu, 2010:123-125)

Bassnett explicitly introduced the concept of culture into translation studies and proposed that the essence of literary translation is cultural translation. In literary translation, we should not only pay attention to the transformation and expression of text, semantics, rhetoric and style, but also consider the cultural differences between the source language and the target language, as well as the translator's position in translation.(Wu, 2009:103-105)

The cultural turn theory studies translation from the perspective of translator’s subjectivity and target culture. It mainly aims at the cultural conflict in translation, solves the untranslatable problem in translation to some extent, awakens the cultural consciousness of the translation community, widens the research field of translation and adds a new dimension to translation research.(Wu, 2010:123-125)

=== Brief Introduction of the Expressions with Chinese Characteristics and ''Xi Jinping: the Governance of China Ⅲ'' ===

==== Introduction of the Expressions with Chinese Characteristics ====

Expressions with Chinese characteristics refer to the unique language expression forms of Chinese, which have the characteristics of Chinese language and culture, and reflect the national conditions and policies of China. Expressions with Chinese characteristics include some political and economic terms, idioms, poems, four-character phrases and expressions with distinctively Chinese national culture, which reflect the national policies, people’s life, culture and their values at that time. Expressions with Chinese characteristic are a unique language phenomenon in Chinese language and culture. In fact, it is highlighted in the process of cultural communication between China and foreign countries. These terms have rich cultural connotations and more distinctive political text features.(Wang, 2020:87-93; Tang, 2013:157-158; Chen, 2019:55-58)

According to the different stylistic features, the expressions with Chinese characteristics are divided into several categories, including political and economic terminology, literary quotations, four-character expressions and idioms and rhetoric expressions.

Political and economic terminology refers to the strategic principles reflecting China’s national conditions and terms with Chinese cultural characteristics. They contain many expressions about our Party’s policies, national interests, political propositions, territorial sovereignty, etc. To a certain extent, they represent the code of conduct and guiding plan issued by the state and the government in an authoritative and standardized way. There are many expressions in political and economic terminology with Chinese characteristics, such as phrases with symmetrical form and structure, abbreviations of numbers, new expressions issued by the government, expressions with communication effect, repetition and so on.

Literary quotations mainly refer to ancient Chinese poetry and prose with rich cultural connotation. Literary quotations can describe something in a concise and vivid way, and they are rhythmic. The content is often a high degree of refinement and generalization of life, creating a beautiful artistic conception with rich imagination and association. The characters are vivid; the language rhythm is clear and harmonious.

Four-character expressions and idioms have a certain structure form and contain connotations. They often appear as a whole in sentences, such as subject, object, attribute and so on. The vast majority of four-character expressions and idioms have been used since ancient times. The usage of these expressions is often different from modern Chinese. They contain rich allusions and are frequently quoted in the state leaders’ speeches. Idioms are simple, profound, philosophical and easy to understand. They are stereotyped sentences, often with exhortation or educational significance. As one of the essences of national language and culture, they have rich cultural connotations. In persuasive speeches, these expressions can prove or summarize opinions, and most of them are created by the people and widely spread. They are colloquial, popular.

Rhetoric expressions refer to the sentences which are involved with the use of language skills, rules, ways or methods, such as pun, metaphor, personification, metonymy, exaggeration, contrast, etc. In political works, the use of rhetorical devices makes the text of the works more beautiful, more persuasive.
The features of expressions with Chinese Characteristic are as following: first, these expressions contain full of social-cultural implication and have richer features of the times. Second, there are no direct translation or equivalent translation of such expressions in English, which means that they are uniquely Chinese. Third, these expressions are concise and popular, which raise great discussion and appreciation after publication. Fourth, the range of expressions with Chinese characteristics is large, covering sectors such as politics, economy, culture, history, society and people’s daily life.

==== Introduction of ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ'' ====

''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ'' contains a complication of 92 of Xi Jinping’s spoken and written works from October 18, 2017 to January 13, 2020, along with 41 photographs. It is divided into 19 sections by topic, with the articles in each section arranged in chronological order. For ease of reading, notes are to be found at the end of relevant articles.

''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ'' vividly recorded the process that since the 19th CPC National Congress, guided by the thought that is remaining true to the Party’s original aspiration and founding mission, the CPC Central committee, with Xi Jinping as its core, has fully considered the overall goal of national rejuvenation and the international situation in a context of change at a level unseen in a century, and has coordinated efforts on the great struggle, the great project, the great cause and the great dream. The third volume recorded the great practice which the CPC Central Committee, leads the whole party and whole country to make great progress in all fields of things, which shows the latest achievements of localization of Marxism in China. It has also contributed a Chinese perspective and Chinese ideas to promote the establishment of a global community of a shared future, and it is an authoritative book that reflects the Xi Jinping’s Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.

The publication of ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ'' has helped officials and the public to understand and apply Xi Jinping’s Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, and to strengthen their commitment to the Four Consciousnesses, the Four-sphere Confidence and the Two Upholds, and to fight for the final victory in building a moderately prosperous society in all respects, and also to help the international community gain a full appreciation of the thought and the reasons for the success of the CPC, Marxism and Chinese Socialism.
As for the stylistic features of the English Version, the book contains a complication of 92 of Xi Jinping’s spoken and written works, which all belongs to the political writing.

First of all, the principles of the political writing are faithfulness, accuracy, clarity and completeness, which means that the political writing should have formal and standard use of language in terms of vocabulary. Political writings focus on the logical clarity and precise reasoning, and should avoid ambiguity and vague expressions.

Second, political writings mainly reflect the condition and development of our country, and are highly sensitive. When translating, they should not only be rigorous and faithful to the original text, but also represent the sovereignty and position of our country, and strive to convey the views and attitudes of our government completely and accurately.

Third, the English version should accurately explain the essence of the original text, and it should conform to the expression habits of the English language. The translated text should conform to the using habits of the target language English, which can make it easier for foreigners to understand.

=== Translation Analysis ===
The following part is the translation analysis according to the translation methods used by the translators.
====Literal Translation====
Literal translation is the translation of text from one language to another “word-for-word”, rather than giving the sense of the original. When using literal translation, we would remain the original style, which includes the original sentence structure and the figure of speech.(Xiong, 2014:82-88)

[Example 1]

[ST] 九二共识

[TT] the 1992 Consensus

[Comments] Here “九二共识” is literally rendered to “the 1992 Consensus”. Its core meaning is that the mainland and Taiwan province all belong to China, and the two sides of the Taiwan Strait are not the relationship of two countries, thus clearly defining the fundamental nature of cross-strait relations. This consensus has been defined for a long time, and become a common knowledge all over the world. Thus, we can render this literally, which is faithful not only to the form and structure of the original, but also to the meaning.

[Example 2]

[ST] 三农问题

[TT] issues relating to agriculture, rural areas, and rural people

[Comments] Here “三农问题” is translated to literally and used the annotation as an extra information. “三农” is the abbreviation for “农业，农村，农民”, and they denote different meanings. Numeral Abbreviations contain rich cultural information and simplify language expression. In order to transfer the meaning completely, the translators use the literal translation method, which reproduces the national characteristics of the source culture. In addition, the annotation method is supplemented, which can eliminate the obstacles in cross-cultural understanding.

[Example 3]

[ST] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤。

[TT] Not bent on praise for its bright colors, but on leaving its fragrance to all.

[Comments] The poem is written by Wang Mian in the Yuan Dynasty, which refers that the plum blossom doesn’t need others to praise its color. What it cares about is to keep the light fragrance around the world. President Xi Jinping uses this poetry to express his ambition and chants the character of plum blossom. The translated version gets rid of the constraints of the structure and words of the original text, and it omits the name of plum blossom. However, it directly explains the true meaning of the original text and translates “清气” into fragrance. The translation is natural and fluent, which is not only consistent with the original text, but also conveys the cultural connotation of “work hard on one’s own and leave the good qualities to the world” expressed in the poem to foreign readers accurately.

[Example 4]

[ST] …哪怕刺耳、尖锐一些，我们也要采取闻过则喜的态度，做到有则改之、无则加勉。

[TT] Even if their comments are harsh and sharp, we should be glad to hear them, so that we can correct our mistakes if we have made any and guard against them if we have not.

[Comments] The translators add some adjectives and expand a word to a full sentence. The four-character expressions in China have meaningful connotations. When translating, the translators need to add some detailed information to help the understandings of the targeted readers. Therefore, the translators use addition to supplement the whole meaning, which is easy for foreigners to understand.

====Free Translation====
Free translation is the translation by meanings. That is, the translation is done according to the real meanings of a sentence or even a paragraph, instead of completely word to word. When using free translation, people usually pay little attention to the form and style of the original text. Instead, they would think of the original meaning carefully. In order to use free translation effectively, the translator should know the culture of original text and targeted text well, and have an extensive knowledge about them.(Xiong, 2014:82-88)

[Example 1]

[ST] 四风

[TT] Four Malfeasances for favoring from over substance, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance

[Comments] Here “四风” is the abbreviation for four problems happening in the leading group and it is harmful. “风” here is not the wind in English, instead it is a metaphor, which means that the bad habits or problems in the leading group can be spread quickly if not solved in a proper way. The translators use “malfeasance”, which can translate the meaning correctly; and they add some details to the translated version, from which the foreign readers can understand the meaning effectively.

[Example 2]

[ST] 恩德相结者，谓之知己；腹心相照者，谓之知心。

[TT] People drawn to each other by kindness and virtues make good friends; people who hold together with a meeting of minds make bosom friends.

[Comments] It is a typical example of Classical Chinese, which is different from today’s Mandarin and has full potential meaning for each word. So, the translator used paraphrase to explain the sentence, which can remove obscurities in the understandings to the original text and can create a communicative effect to the targeted readers.

[Example 3]

[ST] 生搬硬套或强加于人都会引起水土不服。

[TT] Blindly copying the models of others will only be counterproductive

[Comments] Here “水土不服” refers that a person cannot understand the weather condition and eating habits of one place. President Xi compares it to the unsuitable strategies used by some official people. The translators shift the original noun form into a clause, which is easy to understand. In this way, the translated version suits the habits of English expression, and would not cause misunderstandings to the targeted readers.

[Example 4]

[ST] 打好改革组合拳

[TT] forge a synergy

[Comments] Here “打好改革组合拳” contains a figure of speech, metaphor, which compares the combination of several plans to the complete set of martial arts, the Chinese boxing. The translators omit the Chinese boxing, instead, they use “synergy”, which refers to the extra energy, power, success, etc. that is achieved by two or more people or companies working together, instead of on their own, which conforms to the meaning that our Chinese people work together to achieve the prosperity and success of the Reform and Opening-up. However, in this way, this kind of translation suits the goal well, but loses the cultural meaning.

====Recreation====
Recreation refers to a translation method that the translator decontextualizes the meaning and form of the original text and creatively reprocesses the original text in order to achieve a certain translation purpose (such as meeting the specific needs of the target audience).(Xiong, 2014:82-88)

[Example 1]

[ST] 我将无我，不负人民。

[TT] Never fail the people.

[Comments] It is a sentence spoken by Xi Jinping in March, 2019 when he made a state visit to Italy. At that time, Italy’s speaker of the House of Representatives asked Xi Jinping what he was feeling when he was elected as the president of China. Here “我将无我, 不负人民” is Xi Jinping’s deepest expression of affection for the Chinese people and his firm declaration as a national leader for the country and people. “我将无我, 不负人民” is a kind of political words, which mainly reflect the position and development of our country. When translating, it should not only be faithful to the original text, but also be flexible. We should strive to convey China’s sovereignty completely and accurately. As for the translated version, “Never fail the people” spreads the meaning effectively and the targeted readers can understand the sentence accurately.

====Culture Replacement====
Culture Replacement refers to replace the source text with some similar expressions in English because of language differences between English and Chinese. In essence, culture replacement belongs to the category of free translation and is one of the closest ways to the target language readers’ understanding. Using this method can not only convey the meaning of the source language, but also facilitate the understanding of the target language readers.(Xiong, 2014:82-88)

[Example 1]

[ST] 天网恢恢，疏而不漏

[TT] Justice has long arms.

[Comments] In this sentence, there is no equivalent meaning for “天网恢恢，疏而不漏” in English, so the translators use “Justice has long arms”, which is an English idiom, as a replacement. This kind of translation not only retains the original meaning, but also conforms to the English expression habits.

Through text analysis, we can find that for these four categories, the literal translation can remain the original form and structure well to some extent, but also remains some obstacles for the targeted readers. In translating expressions with Chinese characteristics in the political essays, we should consider several aspects, such as politics, accuracy, purpose, and make a true arrangement to these aspects. So, the translated version should follow these rules and be rendered well. For those selected expressions, they are all selected from the political papers and essays whose purpose for translation was mainly about spreading the messages. So, for those expressions with Chinese characteristics, sometimes their Chinese characteristics will be omitted, which remains to be discussed and solved in the future.

===An Analysis from the Perspective of the Cultural Turn Theory===
====The Background and Social Situation====
According to the cultural turn theory, when translating the original texts, we should pay attention to the context. The scholars Bassnett and Levefere advocated to pay attention to social context, history instead of formalism stage. In the process of spreading Chinese culture, the transformation of expressions with Chinese characteristics has the particularity of time, space and society, which requires to have the correspondence of the particular expressions in the contexts. When translating, not only should we pay attentions to the coordination between language symbols and political implication, but also should focus on the coordination of domestic and international context. After analyzing the expressions with Chinese characteristics in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Ⅲ, we can find that the expressions should be translated accurately according to the original meaning conveyed by the government.

====The Translators====
Bassnett pointed out that translation, like poetry or novels, cannot have the best version, and the evaluation of a translation can only be based on the purpose, function and process of translation in a specific context. Therefore, when evaluating or analyzing a translated version, we should consider the translator’s purpose, translation function and other factors in its specific context. Therefore, even if the same text is translated, the translator's translation strategies will change dynamically with the change of translation purpose. Compared with other types of text translators, translators of foreign political discourse are generally institutional groups to which the government belongs. The English translation of Volume Ⅲ is organized and coordinated by the national foreign language Bureau and completed by a certain number of translation experts at home and abroad. The translation strategies adopted should focus on the purpose of foreign publicity. Therefore, the English translation of foreign publicity in Volume Ⅲ should also keep pace with the times. Besides, the core terms should also conform to the English narrative habits and methods.

====The Targeted Readers====
By improving the language collocation in line with the acceptance habits of English readers, strengthening the connotation free translation and information supplementary translation of words with Chinese characteristics, improving wording expression and other translation strategies, so as to improve the readers’ accurate access to the original information, so as to improve the overseas readers’ cognition of the core ideas and views of China’s development. The translated version strives to target the English audience in terms of expression, follow the rules of English language rhetoric, and provide readers with the context of understanding Chinese social and cultural knowledge to the greatest extent.

=== Conclusion ===
This article attempted to explore the Chinese to English translation of expressions with Chinese Characteristics from the cultural turn theory. It is necessary and practicable to carry out such a study in which the cultural turn theory is applied to the translation of expressions with Chinese Characteristics.
Based on the cultural turn theory, this article focused on the translation of four types of text - political and economic terminology, literary quotations, four-character expressions and idioms and rhetoric expressions. Large quantities of examples are extracted from Xi Jinping: The Governance of China III and analyzed. Through detailed analysis, the use of various kinds of translation methods can be applied to the translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics under the guidance of the cultural turn theory. These translation methods include literal translation, free translation, recreation, paraphrase, addition, combination, shift, omission, and so on. Among these translation methods and strategies, their advantages and disadvantages are obviously lying on several aspects, like the conveyed meaning, original forms and structures, the specific Chinese character and corresponding English expressions etc.
The Chinese to English translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics is important for spreading Chinese culture and communicating with other culture in today’s cross-culture circumstance. In order to achieve this goal, the translator should have a deep understanding towards Chinese culture and foreign culture, which includes the social background, language usage etc. Moreover, the translator should understand the potential meaning conveyed from the original texts and choose the suitable translation methods and strategies, thus transferring the message accurately and fluently to the targeted readers.
However, there are some limitations in this translation study.
First of all, the translation methods and strategies discussed in the chapter four are limited. Therefore, the analysis may not be comprehensive and would neglect some important ways of translation. Second, the author’s own limitation of knowledge to the professional field to some degree leads to inconvenience and difficulty in thesis writing. In addition, the translation study about Xi Jinping: The Governance of China III is limited; the author can only get the relative message from studies on foreign publicity translation.
Due to the limitations of this translation study, there are some suggestions.
First, the merits and demerits of the selected translation theory should be fully understood. When analyzing the translation methods under the guidance of the designated theories, the author should make full consideration and try to find new ideas in the field of translation study. Second, the author should be careful for the features of these expressions with Chinese characteristics.
After all, this translation study is only an attempt to use the cultural turn theory into the translation of expressions with Chinese characteristics. Due to the limited space here, the study could not cover all the aspects and make a comprehensive analysis. Many problems and issues remain to be solved in the future.

=== References ===
[1] 杨大亮, 杨海燕. 浅谈具有中国特色用语的英译[J].上海翻译, 2006(03): 73-74.

[2] 来程颖. 从翻译伦理角度分析《习诉平谈治国理政》第二卷中国特色表达英译[D].北京外国语大学, 2019.

[3] 王克非, 王颖冲. 论中国特色文化词汇的翻译[J].外语与外语教学，2020(06): 87-93, 149-150.

[4] 陈梅霞. 文化“走出去”战略下中国特色词汇译介研究——基于《中国日报》和《纽约时报》的实证分析[J].新闻爱好者, 2019(03): 55-58.

[5] 唐慧. 中国特色用语翻译策略及翻译原则探析——基于《政府工作报告》英译本[J].湖南科技学院学报, 2013, 34(03): 157-158, 175.

[6] 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[J]. 中国翻译, 2014, 35(03): 82-88.

[7] Xi Jinping. Xi Jinping: The Governance of China. Volume III [M]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2020.

[8] 习近平. 习近平谈治国理政（第三卷）[M]. 北京: 外文出版社, 2020.

[9]吴博.浅谈翻译研究文化转向——巴斯内特“文化翻译观”及其对当今翻译研究的影响[J].商丘师范学院学报,2010,26(11):123-125.

[10]伍小君.翻译研究中的文化转向:批判与反思[J].外语学刊,2009(04):103-105.

Written by --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 13:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=黄锦云The Cultural Turn in the Chinese Traditional Translation Theory=

[[Cult_Turn_EN_4]]

=李姗 Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn =
[[Cult_Turn_EN_5]]
=== Abstract ===
Amid the deepening and widening of globalization, communications between different countries and regions in various fields have become increasingly frequent, particular in the sector of economy. Transnational corporations spring up like mushrooms. More and more brands are introduced inside and expanding outside. The first step of enterprises to expand overseas lies in the translation of the brand names. A good name foresees a good start. In this regard, cultural elements should be carefully taken into consideration.

This paper centers on the analysis of brand name translation in light of the principle of cultural turn. It could be divided into four parts in total. The first part is a brief introduction of the current international situation, and the purpose of this research. The second part is the short literature review in terms of both brand name translation and cultural turn. The third part is the main body of this paper, including the analysis of some successful cases of brand name translation as well as the analysis of failure ones. The last part is the summary of the whole and the significance of the phenomenon of cultural turn in translation. Through this analysis, this paper aims to arouse people’s awareness of culture’s influence and urge them to pay more attention to cultural elements during the translation of brand names.

=== Key Words ===
Cultural Turn; Brand Name Translation; Cross-culture Communication

=== 摘要 ===
在全球化不断朝着纵深方向发展的背景下，不同国家和地区之间的各方面交流日益频繁，经济领域尤其如此。跨国公司犹如雨后春笋，纷纷涌现，引进来和走出去的公司品牌越来越多。开拓外国新市场的第一步在于选取合适的品牌名。好的名字能预示好的开始。而在此过程中，文化要素需要细心考量。

本文以文化转向为理论原则，以其为指导对品牌名的翻译进行分析研究。本文共包含四个部分。第一部分对当前国际现状以及研究目的进行了简要的介绍。第二部分是关于品牌名翻译和文化转向理论的文献综述。第三部分为本文的主体部分，对成功和失败的品牌名翻译进行了分析。最后一部分则概括总结本文所述内容，并阐述了翻译中文化转向的意义。通过对品牌名翻译进行简要分析研究，本文旨在激发人们翻译时的文化意识，在翻译品牌名时更多地关注文化要素。

=== 关键词 ===
文化转向；品牌名翻译；跨文化交际

=== Title ===
Analysis of Brand Name Translation Under the Principle of Cultural Turn

=== I. Introduction ===

As each country in the world is woven tightly with one another and economic globalization has developed by leaps and bounds, communications and transactions between different countries as well as regions have become increasingly frequent. More and more brands begin to expand their market in foreign lands. To enter into a new territory, the brands need to enhance their competitiveness, and more importantly to give the potential consumers a perfect first impression and thus make themselves mentally accepted and acknowledged by the potential clients of the targeted region. To have a good start, advertising is a good way to win a certain fame around a circle. But there is no doubt that the top priority lies in proper brand names as a matter of the fact that proper names could impress people with a surprise and then leave a deep and enduring imprint on their mind.

Guided by the policy of Reform and Opening-up, China has initiated One Belt and One Road proposal and is committed to promote comprehensive cooperation in the range of globe, in addition to its active participation in various economic organizations. Beyond doubt, multi-country economic activities and collaborations will develop in depth and breadth. More and more brands will be introduced inside and go outside. Therefore, this paper decides to center on the subject of brand name translation. However, the reality has told us that economic activity is not merely an economic problem and translation is not an isolated activity. “It has to do with authority and legitimacy and, ultimately, with power. Translation is not just a “window opened on another world,” or some such pious platitude. Rather, translation is a channel opened, often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the native culture, challenge it, and even contribute to subverting it.” (Lefevere) It is closely linked to social, political and especially cultural ideologies. Taking this into consideration, this paper desires to analyze the translation of brand names from the perspective of Cultural Turn, to figure out how cultural elements influence brand name translation so as to arouse brands’ awareness of cultural gap in terms of advertising their brand names.

=== II. Literature Overview ===

'''1. Literature Review on Brand Name Translation'''

Brand names are intangible assets of a company, carefully chosen and aimed at distinguishing itself from other rival brands and products. The same as our names represent our personality and show our originality, brand names play the role as the faces of the brands, in the very fact themselves being a part of the products of their brand. Original, novel and imaginary names could easily attract people’s attention, arouse their interests and ultimately promote the sales of the brands’ products. To fulfill this supreme mission, transnational corporations and companies that prepare to expand foreign market would pay great attention to the translation of their brand names to fit in the cultural context of the target market. Consequently, the translation of brand names has drawn the attention of a number of scholars and researchers.

At abroad, attention has long been paid to the function of brands as the development of marketing strategies. David Aaker has published his book of Managing Brand Equity in the year of 1991, which elaborates on how to create, market, develop and manage brands. Kevin Kelley in the book titled Strategic Brand Management (1998) offers the ways to construct brands, brand equity and brand management. Both of the two books have emphasized the importance of having an excellent brand name and suggested the way to name a brand. (曹昭) As for the papers, there are a measure trove of them in the website. In them, Chow Clement (2007) has showed the dilemma of all marketers whether to translate the brand name into local language, while the cosmetic brand names of Iran were discussed; US brands in China were carefully analyzed to form a name translation model. Besides, Chao Paul and Lin Shengdong (2017) have explored the strategies to translate brand names effectively by means of brand attitude reversal and perceived brand name translation relevance in an emerging market. Schmitt Bernd (2012) advocated to select the right brand name by carefully examining tacit and explicit linguistic knowledge in name translations. All these papers have revealed that brand name translation is of some significance and worth of attention.

In China, the first study regarding the translation of brand names can be traced back to the year of 1994, when Zhou Xiaobing has made a brief analysis of the brands names and classified four approaches to translating brand names against the background of China’s Reform and Opening-up. From then on, there has been several studies conducted in this aspect. However, it was since 2005 that respectively more scholars and researchers have their eyes turned to the translation of brand names. Among these papers, most researches of brand names are related to Skopos theory, for example the studies of Cao Zhao (2006), Liu Xi (2018) and Wang Yifang (2015), who believed that the translation of brands names should be progressed in response to certain purposes. And some scholars centered around the guiding influence of functional equivalence on the translating process, such as Tian Yuxia (2011) and Du Shuling (2015). In addition, some analyzed the translation of brand names from the perspective of culture, including Tang Degen (1997), Liu Jiuping (2001) and Ai’ Supin cooperated with Cao Rong (2007). Besides the perspectives mentioned above, there are also some studies conducted in terms of psychological theories, aesthetic principles of Xu Yuanchong and other approaches.

'''2. Literature Review on Cultural Turn Theory'''

Translation is not merely confined to the source language and target language, but also a social and cultural activity. The cultural and background information must be carefully considered during the translation process. Since people of different nationalities and nations all live in the same global village, it is of necessity to have frequent exchanges. Against the barrier of the tower of Babel, translators play the role of ladders, functioning as the bridge of effective communication between different linguistic groups. Thus, translators are actually not translating the two languages, but traveling back and forth within the two cultures (Casagrande, 1954: 338. Zeng Wenxiong)

After the second World War, against the background of hegemony and anti-hegemony, frequent communications across continents and countries, culture and across-culture communication have attracted more and more attention in the field of academic studies.
As the beating power of deconstruction has greatly influenced structuralism linguistics, the former dominant linguistic approach to translation studies was shaking. The studies of text structure and meta-language has surrendered to the studies of discourse and the process of translation, which has exactly deepened the research of the cultural information of the text. The latter half of the 20th century has seen the combination of post-modern critical theories and the theory of deconstruction, thus offering a new approach to analyze translation. Different from mainly centering on the text analysis, more attention has been paid to the consideration of social, historical and cultural background of the correspondent time period. While conducting translation studies and putting forward translation principles, the academic community thus shifted their focus from merely language itself to the culture side. Then sprung two kinds of trends, the cultural turn of translation and the translation turn of literature. (Lv Jun, )

That period has witnessed the heat of studies of culture. In the 1970s, Israelite scholar Even-Zohar’s principle of Poly-system Theory together with Tory’s Descriptive Translation Studies have been regarded as the signs of the shift of translation to culture turn. However, cultural turn, in translation, is firstly put forward by Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere in their co-operated book Translation, History and Culture in the year of 1990. In this book, they have elaborated on the power and influence of culture-related notions including history, authority and manipulation, and also narrated the aims and context of translation. Language, then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril. (Susan Bassnett, 1980: 23)

Translation is not an arbitrary activity. It is conducted under certain principle and aimed to fulfill certain purpose. This paper is to figure out the translation of brand names with an emphasis on cultural elements.

=== III. Analysis of the Translation of Some Brand Names ===

Early since the Industrial Revolution and the rise of commercialism, all kinds of commodities appear one after another without an end. The advances of economic globalization and cross-border transportation have also provided convenient access for numerous brands to expand overseas. During the process of expansion, excellent brand names are for a certainty of great benefit to the brand’s further development.

'''1. Excellent Cases of Brand Name Translation'''

Focusing on our daily life, there are quite a few excellent translated brand names to analyze.

'''1.1 The Use of Good Images'''

BWM = 宝马
The full name of the brand BWM is Bayerische Motoren Werke, which is short of the car plant. To make a stride in Chinese market, the brand chose “宝马” as its Chinese name, which in reality builds up a very impressive image for the brand. “宝” means something beautiful and precious, equaling to rare jewelry or great fortune. “马” is an animal, which used to be the top transport tool for ancient Chinese people and regarding this image, people may hold the belief that excellent horses can run very far in a day and at a high speed. The combination of the two words impresses the idea that the car is very pretty in its design and outlook, and also boasts a good performance and high proficiency.

Land Rover = 路虎

Rover is a luxury car brand. And the word rover originally refers to an ancient nation in North Europe, renowned for courageous deeds. In English, the brand name constructs the picture that its car just like those pioneering people who dare to counteract with any threat above the sea. Obviously, its Chinese version has successfully reproduced its original meaning. Although its ideal choice in the very beginning was “陆虎”, which was pre-chosen by a rival. The present one is also very good. “路” means the road. “虎”, the tiger, in China is very strong and brave. As Land Rover is car brand that specializes in off-road vehicles, the Chinese name “路虎” utterly shows its stance, a soldier of road that no one would dare to or be able to hold back.

'''1.2 The Endowment of Rich Cultural Connotations'''

金典 = Satine

“金典” is one of the secondary brands of Yili Industry Group Co., Ltd., a giant milk producer. "金" is gold in Chinese, showing that the milk boasts good quality. And "典" equals to classical or authority, which means the taste of the milk is authentic and great. This brand claims to be of high quality and aims at the high-end market, and in deed it occupies a large piece of pie in the plate of Chinese milk consumption. As a high-end milk brand, the English name it chooses also show its taste. "Satine" is a French word, with the connotation of "as smooth as silk". That implies the milk boasts good quality and tastes silky, which mirrors its orientation of middle and high-end market.

Revlon = 露华浓

Revlon is an American cosmetic brand, with foundation, lipstick and various make-ups on sale and young female as its target consumers. Its Chinese name is "露华浓", which actually comes from a poem written by a distinguished poet from Tang dynasty, named Li Bai. The line that it comes from “云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓”, which means when one sees the clouds in the sky, one would think of her gorgeous clothes; when one sees the flowers, one would think of her charming countenance. And the favor of the wind makes the flower even more beautiful. Through the device of metaphor, this poem vividly describes the extreme beauty of the dignified imperial concubine, Miss Yang. When a poem that glorifies the beauty of a gorgeous woman is connected with a brand that aims to build beautiful women, a good association could be constructed at ease. Therefore, the localized name of Revlon could easily attract females' attention and win their favor at the first sight in China.

Kiehl's = 科颜氏

As one of the most popular cosmetic brands in China, Kiehl's boast a lot in its brand name. It was in the year of 2009 when this brand became a part of L' Oreal Group that it took the Chinese name of “科颜氏”. Before that time, it was called “契尔氏”, which could hardly trigger any related association among people. "科颜氏" may remind one of “神农氏”, a herborist who tastes all kinds of herbs in person to figure out their functions. And Kiehl's stems from a pharmacy which sells unguents made up of natural plants in the very earth period. And at present, it advertises to be gentle and natural, free of stimulus and suitable to sensitive skins. In this regard, the two do share some common points. Thus, the association of the two would also add glory to it. "科" means science and "颜" means good look, the combination of the two would increase the sense of authority and leave consumers the impression that products of this brand would truly improve their outlook.

'''1.3 The Use of Novel Word Combinations'''

Mercedes-Benz = 奔驰

The brand name of Mercedes-Benz is in fact the name of its brand founder. But as Chinese people care more about the cars rather than a foreign name, it's definitely true that the cars of Mercedes-Benz may not be greeted with so much fondness if it were literally translated as “梅赛德斯·本茨”, since it could satisfy promising consumers’ curiosity towards it as well as the demands towards a car. The brand knew it so that “奔驰” is an excellent car brand becomes one of the common sense. Both “奔” and “驰” are verbs in Chinese, meaning running in Chinese, and the two of them imply a very handsome speed, just like a horse running at a high speed in a sweeping field.

良品铺子 = Bestore

“良品铺子” is a famous Chinese snack brand familiar to almost everyone who is fond of snacks. The first two characters of the brand name means goods of high quality, and the latter two is the equivalent word for a shop or store in English. Its English translation is "Bestore", made up of "be" and "store". Through the word store, it makes the consumers clear about the orientation of its products on sale and the prefix "be" makes it cuter and a little bit special, distinguishing this brand from the ordinary unnamed stores. Thus, it may give people a impression of warmth and coziness, which completely suits the image of a snack brand.

佰草集 = Herborist

In the wake of the brands above, let's have a look at some domestic brands of China. “佰草集” is a skin-care brand that proclaims to contain natural elements to protect one's skin. Its name connotates the meaning that it's a collection of a wide variety of herbs with medicinal values. Thus, its English translation "Herborist" has vividly showed the features of its products, which could convince people of its natural, moderate and harmless effects. Besides since the herborist refers to a doctor in the context of English vocabulary, it would give out a sense of authority.

美加净 = Maxam

“美加净” is a time-honored cosmetic brand in China. Its selling point lies in the baby care products, though a lot of adult females have been attracted to buy its products. “美” means beauty, and “净” means cleanliness. The two are connected by the word “加”, which means plus. That is to say these products can make one's skin both beautiful and clean. The English name of Maxam has properly expressed this connotation, which impresses people as maximizing one's beauty to largest degree.

茶颜悦色 = Sexy Tea

Sexy Tea, an influential milk tea brand with its headquarter located in Changsha, Hunan province. The design of the brand is quaint, characteristic of ancient Chinese style. And the image of this brand is the pretty caricature of Lin Daiyu, a major figure of "Dream of the Red Chamber", one of the four Chinese classics. “悦色” is a term that means a pretty and satisfying countenance. In its translation, sexy and tea makes a very novel combination. It may easily trigger foreigners' attention and curiosity. How can a cup of milk tea be sexy? What would it taste like? Thus, this kind of emotion would attract a lot of foreign friends to have a try in its shops.

After a careful analysis of the successful brand names in the fields of car, food and cosmetics both in China and at abroad, we may make a summary of the common points that they share. First of all, the translated brand names all possess good meaning in the cultural context of the target market, without any ambiguous or implicit reference to something negative in that culture. Secondly, positive words are used to constitute their names, most of which are combinations of adjectives and nouns that hold propitious bearings. The association of pure verbs with fine connotations also offers great novelty and is of great appeal to the audience. Thirdly, most brands would prefer to reveal the category of their products in their names. That makes it quite easy for the consumers to know their orientation by a mere glimpse. The successful guidelines of these brands would offer valuable experiences for the other brands.

'''2. Failure Cases of the Brand Name Translation'''

Besides those excellent cases, failure cases of brand name translation also abound around the globe.

'''2.1 The Misuse of Negative Images'''

白猫 = white cat

“白猫” is a producer of wash supplies. It occupies a large share of internal market and its existence could be caught in almost every store and supermarket. It is undoubted that a great number of people would be shocked to see that it is translated into White Cat directly. In reality, cat is a negative image that is usually regarded as an evil creature in western culture. For example, in Edgar Allen Poe’s short novel, the black cat is deemed by people as an incarnation of witches, the embodiment of evil forces. Though the color of white is the symbol for purity and faith, the cat image owns such a strong influence that the positive meaning of the former is easily offset in their combination.

白象 = White Elephant

“白象” is a Chinese brand that produces battery. After it is translated into English, it is literally named as White Elephant, which is definitely a failure case that should be avoided in the context of western culture. Because in English world, white elephant holds pretty negative meaning, referring to those stuff that are elegant but useless. Therefore, the brand name would leave people the impression that the battery the brand sells are the same as white elephants.

'''2.2 The Ambiguous Pronunciation of Words'''

方太 = FOTILE

“方太” is a brand that specializes in manufacturing and selling household electrical appliances. There are two level of meanings lying in this name. Firstly, when the brand is to change a new name, there was a heated TV show by the name of Fang Tai Food Square. The brand desires to attract more people’s attention, especially those audience who are fond of that reality show. Secondly, “方太” can also be seen as the abbreviation of “方便太太”, that is, to make it convenient for the household wives. Thus, the name shares many links with keeping kitchen clean as well as simplifying household duties. However, its translation is far from expressing these two kinds of meanings. The sound of “FOTILE” is extremely similar to the pronunciation of the word futile. Thus, it could be easily uttered in the wrong way and leaves a terrible impression on people’s mind. Few people would take the risk to purchase some appliance that seems to be “futile”.

Standard Chartered Bank = 渣打银行

Standard Chartered is a British bank. When it landed on Hongkong, China, it uses 渣打 as its name. However, in Chinese, “渣” means dregs and “打”is a verb that means breaking up. The combination of the two fail to form a convincing image for the bank. Except those who have certain knowledge about it, ordinary people would not list it as their hold-up vessel of money, as its name grants the bank little credit.

Warsteiner = 沃斯乐/沃斯坦

Warsteiner is a time-honored beer producer in Germany, but it is little fame in China. For it was translated into “沃斯乐” during its first entry into Chinese market. The pronunciation of that name is quite similar to "我死了", which is a taboo word in Chinese culture. Even though it is renamed later, the second name 沃斯坦 still fails to arouse people's wide attention or strong interest.

S&B = 爱思必

S&B is a large-scaled food processing company in Japan. Its sales once surpassed 1 billion US dollars. Its brand name is said to be short of Sun & Bird. However, surprisingly, it chooses “爱思必” as its Chinese brand name even though both China and Japan stand in the continent and are close neighbors. Because it contains negative meaning, which sounds similar to a swear word, equaling with fool.

'''2.3 The Loss of Cultural Connotation'''

方正 = Founder

“方正” is a computer brand, invested by one of the top universities Peking University in 1986. Its name is said to originate from a sentence of Biography of the Han Dynasty · Chao Cuo, that carefully examine others’ behavior so as not to misunderstand them; strictly abide by decrees without personal interests; do one’s utmost to accomplish the tasks delegated from superior leaders without complaint; in face of dangers dare not the death; when meeting someone more competitive, do not rob his position; accept proper amount of gains in accordance with conducted efforts; never stay on a position while not qualified; only those people who possess all these virtues could be regarded as virtuous men.（“察身而不敢诬，奉法令不容私，尽心力不敢矜，遭患难不避死，见贤不居其上，受禄不过其量，不以亡能居尊显之位。自行若此，可谓方正之士矣。”）Obviously, “方正” is of rich cultural connotation. However, its correspondent translation is far from appropriateness. The word “founder” refers to the pioneer of something. It carries a heavy weight. But what could not be ignored is that founder also means the failure, breaking-down of something. In light of this, in 2000 when the original founder of this company was experiencing an emergency, foreign media bantered that “Founder’s founder founders”. To avoid such joke, more attention should be paid to the translation of brand name.

DS (Deesse) = 谛艾仕

DS is car brand named after an ancient goddess Deesse. But its translated Chinese neither expressed its original cultural meaning, nor integrated into Chinese culture. The name “谛艾仕” could hardly invoke any association of people towards excellent cars. It was just mechanically translated in line with its pronunciation.

After the analysis of some failure cases of brand name translation, we may draw a brief conclusion about the causes that lead to their failure. Firstly, the failure lies in the misuse of improper images. Different culture has different cultural images. And the connotation that an image or object is endowed with may differ from country to country or culture to culture. Thus, great attention should be called when it comes to choose a name embodied with images. Secondly, the failure lies in the choice of words with ambiguous pronunciation. The words that share similar sounds with original characters may cause misunderstanding in another culture, since it could sound like another word that contains negative meaning. Thus, the desire to have links between original brand name and translated version could run counter to one's desire. Thirdly, the failure lies in the loss of cultural sense. Some name brands are taking on cultural elements that are confined in the source cultural context. But the translators merely frankly translate those names without a thought of conveying the deep-buried cultural meaning so that these brands fail to perform as well as expected. To avoid bad translations, the causes of them listed above desire careful attention.

=== IV.Conclusion ===

Why should we turn to culture or pay more attention to cultural information of the target language in the process of translation? Firstly, more attention to culture is he manifestation of taking the target readers into consideration; secondly, it's of great benefit for people in different language communities to acquaint with the culture of another community, thus good for mutual communicating and understanding; thirdly, it's important to the development of multi-culturalism since every culture is precious treasure in the world treasure-house of intellect and heritage and some culture has been long in the dominant position and continuously posing threat to other cultures due to the disparity of political and economic forces. More concern about culture and language is necessary to eliminate and prevent cultural hegemony and supremacy.

Bad translations render the letter without the spirit in a low and servile imitation. Good translations keep the spirit without moving away from the letter. They are free and noble imitations that turn the familiar into something new.

=== References ===

[1] Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. New York: Routledge, 2005.

[2] 陈梅, 文军, 张玉. Lefevere翻译理论在中国的发展[J]. 外语学刊, 2011(05): 116-119.

[3] 罗承丽. 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译”思想研究[D]. 北京语言大学, 2009.

[4] 吕俊. 论翻译研究的本体回归——对翻译研究“文化转向”的反思[J]. 上海外国语大学学报, 2004(04): 53-59.

[5] 王宁. 比较文学与翻译研究的文化转向[J]. 中国翻译, 2009,30(05): 19-26+95.

[6] 谢天振. 译者的诞生与原作者的“死亡”[J]. 中国比较文学, 2002(04): 26-44.

[7] 谢天振. 翻译研究“文化转向”之后——翻译研究文化转向的比较文学意义[J]. 中国比较文学, 2006(03): 1-14.

[8] 曾文雄.“文化转向”核心问题与出路[J]. 外语学刊, 2006(02): 90-96.

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=黄逸妍On Translation Strategies of Su Shi's Poetry from the Perspective of Cultural Turn Theory=
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